About Spina Bifida:

• It is a birth defect of the spinal cord that causes serious childhood paralysis.
• It occurs when the spine and spinal cord of a foetus do not fully develop during the embryonic period.
• The condition occurs during early pregnancy, and can range from mild to severe.
• Causes: The cause is not known. It's thought that a combination of genetic, nutritional and environmental risk factors causes the condition.
• Types of Spina Bifida
  • Myelomeningocele: It is the most serious form of the condition.
  • In this type, part of the spinal cord and nerves are exposed through a sac at the opening of the gap in the spine.
  • Meningocele: It is a less common type of spina bifida that occurs when the meninges, or the protective membranes around the spinal cord, push out through the opening in a fluid-filled sac.
  • Spina bifida occulta: It is the mildest form of the condition in which one or more of the vertebrae not forming properly, resulting in a small gap.
• Symptoms: Bowel and bladder issues, back pain, weakness or lack of movement in the legs and loss of sensation in the legs.
• Prevention: It can be prevented largely by having folic acid the early weeks of pregnancy.
• Treatment: There is no cure for the condition; however, treatment options are available to manage symptoms.

About Design Linked Incentive Scheme:

• It is a key instrument in advancing India’s ambition to develop a strong fabless capability.
• It is implemented by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) under the Semicon India Programme.
• Aim: The scheme aims to reduce import dependence, strengthen supply chain resilience, and enhance domestic value addition.
• Eligibility: Start-ups and MSMEs are eligible for financial incentives and design infrastructure support for semiconductor product design & deployment.
• Other domestic companies are eligible for financial incentives for deploying semiconductor designs.
• The DLI Scheme supports: Semiconductor design across the full lifecycle—from design and development to deployment—covering Integrated Circuits (ICs), chipsets, Systems-on-Chip (SoCs), systems and IP cores.
• Nodal Agency: C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing).
• Financial Incentives and Design Infrastructure Support under DLI:
  • Product Design Linked Incentive:
    • Reimbursement of up to 50% of eligible expenditure.
    • The reimbursement is capped at ₹15 crore per application.
    • The support is available to entities involved in semiconductor design for:
      • Integrated Circuits (ICs) Chipsets Systems on Chips (SoCs) Systems & IP Cores Semiconductor-linked designs.
  • Deployment Linked Incentive:
    • Incentives of 6% to 4% of net sales turnover are provided for five years.
    • The incentive is capped at ₹30 crore per application.
    • The minimum cumulative net sales required over Years 1–5 is 1 crore for startups/ ₹ MSMEs and 5 crore for other domestic companies.

About Notifiable Disease:

• A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities. 
• Effective notification allows the authorities to monitor the disease and provides early warning of possible outbreaks.
• The Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897provides the legal framework for notifying diseases in India.
• Criteria for Declaring a Disease as Notifiable may be:
  • It is of interest to national or international regulations or control programs.
  • Its national/ State/District incidence.
  • Its severity (potential for rapid mortality).
  • Its communicability/Its potential to cause outbreaks.
  • Significant risk of international spread.
• Medical practitioners and diagnostic labs are required to notify the local health department of cases of notified diseases. 
• In India, the state government is responsible for determining which diseases must be reported to the medical officer in their area and to notify the diseases. 
• The government and regional authorities maintain a list of notifiable diseases in India, which is subject to change as new diseases are added or existing ones are removed.
  • Examples: Cholera, tuberculosis, AIDS, dengue, hepatitis, leprosy, meningitis, plague, and measles.
• WHO’s International Health Regulations (1969): Mandates countries to report diseases for global surveillance and advisory purposes.

About Double-Humped Bactrian camel:

• It is scientifically known as Camelus bactrianus.
• It is large even-toed ungulates are renowned as Ladakh’s “silent warriors”.
• Distribution:
  • They are native to the harsh and arid regions of Central Asia.
  • They occupy habitats in Central Asia from Afghanistan to China, primarily up into the Mongolian steppes and the Gobi desert.
  • Small populations of these camels are found in high altitude cold deserts of Ladakh’s Nubra Valley.
• Characteristics of Double-Humped Bactrian camel:
  • The two humps, serves as a reservoir of fat that can be converted into water and energy during long treks where food is scarce.
  • They possess thick, shaggy coats that fluctuate with the seasons, growing dense to withstand temperatures as low as minus 40 degrees Celsius.
  • Their nostrils are sealable to block out frozen dust, while their broad feet act like natural snowshoes.
  • They are among the few land animals that can survive by eating snowto meet their hydration needs.
  • Diet: Bactrian camels are omnivores but primarily herbivores and eat various types of plants.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered.

About Archaea:

• Archaea, which means "ancient things" in Greek, are one of the oldest forms of life on Earth and belong to a group called the third domain of life.
• Habitat: They thrive in extreme habitats such as hot springs, cold deserts and hypersaline lakes.
• Characteristics of Archaea:
  • Archaea (singular archaeon) are a primitive group of microorganisms.
  • They are single-celled organisms without nucleus or organelles, and have a similar size and shape as bacteria, but differ from them biochemically.
  • Their membrane is made of a unique type of lipids and most archaea have a cell wall. 
  • These slow-growing organisms are also present in the human gut, and have a potential relationship with human health.
  • They are known for producing antimicrobial molecules, and for anti-oxidant activity with applications in eco-friendly waste-water treatment.
  • Archaea are extremely difficult to culture due to challenges in providing natural conditions in a laboratory setting.
  • Many archaea live in some of the harshest environments on Earth, which makes them ideal for studying how life can survive in tough conditions.

About Taimoor Missile:

• It is an air-launched cruise missile developed by Pakistan.
• It is capable of striking enemy land and sea targets with high precision.
• Features:
  • It uses subsonic turbojet propulsion for long-range efficiency.
  • It has a range of upto 600 kilometers, carrying a conventional warhead.
  • Stealth design: Box-shaped fuselage, X-type tail, foldable wings.
  • The missile is designed to fly at very low altitudes, allowing it to effectively evade hostile air and missile defence systems.
  • It relies on a mix of inertial, satellite, and terrain-based guidance for accurate navigation.

What is a Cruise Missile?

• Cruise missiles are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane.
• They can be launched from ground, air, or sea platforms.
• Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few meters off the ground.
• Flying low to the surface of the earth expends more fuel but makes a cruise missile very difficult to detect.
• Cruise missiles are capable of being launched from multiple ground, air, sea, and submarine platforms.
• Most cruise missiles are subsonic and use turbofan and turbojet engines. While less common, supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles utilize ramjet and scramjet engines.
• Cruise missiles are self-guided and use multiple methods to accurately deliver their payload, including terrain mapping, global positioning systems (GPS), and inertial guidance, which uses motion sensors and gyroscopes to keep the missile on a pre-programmed flight path.

About Hydrokinetic Turbine Technology:

• Hydrokinetic turbines are an emerging hydropower technology that takes advantage of moving water currents to generate power.
• Unlike traditional hydroelectric dams that require larger in-channel infrastructure that can disrupt flow and the river ecosystem, hydrokinetic turbines are placed directly in the river channel and have a much smaller environmental footprint.
• These turbines offer a renewable energy source by tapping into the natural flow of water in aquatic environments.
• It uses kinetic energy of flowing water with practically zero potential head for generation of electrical energy, unlike conventional units, which utilize potential energy of water through construction of suitable civil structures such as dams, diversion weirs, and barrages for creation of necessary 'Head'.

Benefits of Hydrokinetic Turbines

• Renewable Energy Source: Hydrokinetic turbines harness the steady flow of water to generate power. This clean energy source reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
• Minimal Environmental Impact: These turbines operate with the natural flow of water, unlike traditional dams. It preserves ecosystems and minimizes disruption to aquatic life and landscapes.
• Scalable and Flexible: Hydrokinetic turbines can be adjusted to meet different energy needs. They work well for small local setups or larger multi-turbine arrays, making them suitable for various projects.
• Cost-Effective Maintenance: With fewer moving parts and strong debris protection, these turbines require less upkeep. This reduces maintenance costs and ensures reliable long-term operation.

About Typhoid:

• It is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi.
• Transmission:
  • No animals carry this disease, so transmission is always from human to human.
  • A person typically contracts typhoid through contaminated food and drinking water.
  • Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream.
  • These bacteria are shed in the stools and urine of infected people.
• Typhoid is more prevalent in places with less efficient sanitation and hygiene.
• It is most prevalent in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa.
• Symptoms:
  • Symptoms include prolonged high fever, fatigue, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhoea.
  • Some patients may have a rash.
  • Severe cases may lead to serious complications or even death.
  • Some people have typhoid without experiencing any symptoms.
  • Others continue to harbor the bacteria after their symptoms have gone.
  • Sometimes, the disease can appear again.
• Treatment:
  • Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics.
  • Antimicrobial resistance is common, with the likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions.

About Salal Hydroelectric Project:

• It is a 690 MW run-of-the-river power project on the Chenab River in the Reasi District of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Although the plan for a water reservoir was originally conceived in pre-independent India, the planning of the project started in the 1960s.
• The project construction commenced in 1970 and subsequently entered into commercial operation in 1987.
• The project is developed and owned by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC).
• This was the first hydropower project, which was built by India under the Indus Water Treaty regime in Kashmir.
• Salal Dam is 130 meters high with an elevation of 1627 feet above mean sea level.
• Jammu and Kashmir receives 12.5 percent of the energy generated from the project.
• The rest is transmitted to the Northern Grid, where it is distributed to the states of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Jammu and Kashmir also purchases additional power at regular prices.

About Chilika Lake:

• It is a brackish water lake and a shallow lagoon with estuarine character spread across the districts of Puri, Khurda, and Ganjam in the state of Odisha.
• It is Asia’s largest brackish water lake.
• Located at the mouth of the Daya River, Chilika Lake is the second-largest brackish water lagoon in the world, after the New Caledonian barrier reef in New Caledonia.
• The waterspread area of Chilika varies between 900 to 1165 sq. km. during summers and monsoons, respectively.
• It is connected to the Bay of Bengal by a 32 km long and 1.5 km wide channel that mostly runs parallel to the Bay, separated by a narrow spit.
• Chilika Lake has several islands, such as:
  • Nalabana Island – Declared a Bird Sanctuary (1987)
  • Kalijai Island – Known for the Kalijai Temple
  • Other islands include Honeymoon Island, Breakfast Island, Beacon Island, Satpada Island,
• In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
• Biodiversity:
  • It is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds on the Indian subcontinent.
  • Birds from the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea, and other remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and Southeast Asia, Ladakh and Himalayas come here.
  • White-bellied sea eagles, Graylag Geese, Purple Moorhen, Jacana, Herons, and Flamingos are among the many species which make the lake a bird watcher's delight.
  • It is also home to one of the world's largest breeding colonies of Flamingos.
  • Apart from the avifaunal species, the region also highlights varied wild animals such as Blackbuck, Golden Jackals, Spotted Deer, and Hyenas.
  • It is also famous for its population of Irrawaddy dolphins.

About RQ-170 Sentinel:

• It is an American high-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
• It was designed and manufactured by Skunk Works, a division of Lockheed Martin (an American defense and aerospace manufacturer), for the United States Air Force (USAF).
• It is designed to execute intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) and electronic warfare missions over a target area.
• The aircraft entered service in the mid-2000s and has previously been associated with U.S. operations in the Middle East and Asia.
• Features:
  • It features a flying-wing design optimized for reduced radar visibility and long-endurance flights.
  • It features a blended fuselage, pointed nose, and tricycle-type landing gear.
  • An electro-optic camera was incorporated beneath the front fuselage section to seize real-time imagery or videos of the battlefield it is surveying.
  • It can capture real-time imagery of the battlefield and transfer the data to the ground control station (GCS) through a line of sight (LOS) communication data link.
  • It is fitted with an active electronically scanned array radar, synthetic aperture radar, and signal intelligence in its belly fairings.
  • About 90% of the aircraft is made up of composite materials to decrease its overall weight.

About Thadou Tribe:

• They are an indigenous people who live in the hill country adjacent to the Imphal Valley in Manipur.
• The Thadous are the second largest tribe in Manipur, preceded only by the Meiteis, or Manipuris.
• They are also found in smaller numbers in Nagaland, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Delhi.
• Language: They speak Chin and Thado, which belong to the Tibeto-Burman family of the Sino-Tibetan languages.
• Thadous share a common culture with all the Chin-Kuki-Mizo community.
• Thadou settlements are located in forests. Sites on the tops of ridges or just below ridges are preferred.
  • Villages are not arranged according to an established urban plan, and there is no marking of the perimeter of a village.
  • The village chief’s house is usually the largest dwelling within the village.
  • Outside it there is a platform upon which men gather to discuss matters of importance and to mediate disputes.
• Economy:
  • They practice subsistence activities including animal domestication, cultivation, hunting, and fishing.
  • Jhum (slash-and-burn) agriculture is predominant.
• Religious Beliefs: The Thadou tribe traditionally practiced an animistic religion centered on nature spirits and a supreme god, Pathen, presently, almost all Thadou people are Christians.
• Festival: The Hun-Thadou cultural festival is an annual celebration of this community, which is celebrated at the arrival of the New Year.

About Microlensing:

• It is a fascinating phenomenon where the light of a background star is deflected by the gravity of a foreground object towards an observer, temporarily magnifying the star as the foreground object crosses the observer's line of sight.
• It occurs due to gravitational lensing, predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
• The intervening object acts as a gravitational lens, bending the background light.
• This makes it a great way to find objects that are too far away to be visible, like distant planets, brown dwarfs, and neutron stars, and even those that are entirely invisible, like isolated black holes.
• Microlensing events are transient and generally
• Some events last for just 1 day, while others can continue for months or even years, and they can result in very sudden and dramatic changes in brightness.
• Why Use Microlensing for Exoplanet-Hunting?
  • Most exoplanet-hunting techniques either find planets really close to their star (like the transit and radial-velocity methods), or very big, young planets far away from their star (the direct-imaging method).
  • Microlensing is really helpful for catching the planets in the middle – planets that are similar to Jupiter – and smaller planets much further out, including free-floating ones.
  • It’s even quite effective at detecting Earth-like planets.
  • Other methods require many years to detect such planets. Instead, microlensing relies on the blind luck of the planet passing in front of a star.

About Live Events Development Cell (LEDC):

• It was established by the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India.
• Objective: Support the structured growth of India’s rapidly expanding live entertainment industry and strengthen the country’s emerging concert economy.
• The LEDC will function as a single-window facilitation mechanism aimed at streamlining processes for the sector and positioning India among the world’s leading live entertainment destinations by 2030.
• It brings together representatives from the Central and State governments, industry bodies, and major event companies to coordinate policy support and sectoral expansion.
• Key Focus Areas:
  • Single-Window Clearance System being developed on India Cine Hub (ICH) for permissions (fire, traffic, municipal, etc.) to ensure faster approvals and investor-friendly processes.
  • Model SOPs for States and removal of redundant permissions.

About Sri Govindaraja Swamy Temple:

• It is a Hindu temple located in the town of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
• It is dedicated to Lord Govindaraja Swamy, a form of Lord Vishnu.
• It was built in the 12th century by the Cholas and later expanded by the Vijayanagara kings.
• Renowned Vaishnavite philosopher, Saint Ramanujacharya consecrated this temple in 1130 AD.
• The temple has a rich history and has been visited by several kings and emperors over the centuries.
• Architecture:
  • It is a beautiful blend of Dravidian and Vijayanagara styles.
  • Its tall and remarkable seven storied outer Gopuram is adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures.
  • The vimana (tower) above the main sanctum is an architectural highlight. It features a pyramidal shape and intricate carvings, symbolizing the cosmic journey of the deities.
  • The temple complex also includes a large courtyard, several smaller shrines, and a pillared hall.

About Re-circulatory Aquaculture System:

• It is a technology where water is recycled and reused after mechanical and biological filtration and removal of suspended matter and metabolites.
• It is used for high-density culture of various species of fish, utilizing minimum land area and water.
• Key Features of Re-circulatory Aquaculture System:
  • It is an intensive high density fish culture unlike other aquaculture production systems.
  • It is also a closed-loop tank-based farming that recycles water after filtration.
  • RAS filters and cleans the water in the tank, removing waste and keeping it safe for the fish to live in.
  • It has automated set up of culture tanks with both mechanical and biological filtration units, and effectively prevents the entry of pathogens from external sources.
  • It requires the minimal interventions to assess the culture, water and disease monitoring, which allows for improved biosecurity.
  • It can be set up indoors or in areas without natural water sources, allowing fish to be raised closer to cities and where demand is high.

About Battery Pack Aadhaar System:

• It is an indigenous digital identification and data storage system developed to ensure end-to-end traceability of batteries throughout their entire lifecycle.
• Objective: This system aims to bring transparency, accountability, and sustainability to the battery ecosystem by enabling accurate tracking of performance, and environmental impact.
• Features of Battery Pack Aadhaar System:
  • The battery producer or importer shall have the obligation of assigning a unique Battery Pack Aadhaar Number (BPAN) to each battery that they introduce in the market and the battery they put to self-use.
  • Every Electric Vehical battery pack and industrial battery above 2 kWh will be assigned a Battery Pack Aadhaar Number, or BPAN, along with a QR code.
  • The BPAN will store:
    • Static information: It includes the manufacturer’s identity, battery specifications, material composition, and carbon footprint.
    • Dynamic data, including battery health, thermal events, charge-discharge cycles, and end-of-life status — will be maintained on a central server, enabling predictive maintenance and efficient recycling.
  • Significance: BPAN will play a crucial role in enabling second-life usage, regulatory compliance, and efficient recycling.

About Rani Velu Nachiyar:

• Rani Velu Nachiyar (1730–1796) was an 18th-century queen of Sivaganga in present-day Tamil Nadu.
• She was the princess of Ramanathapuram and the only child of Raja Chellamuthu vijayaragunatha Sethupathy and Rani Sakandhimuthal of the Ramnad kingdom.
• She is also known as
• Skills: She was trained in handling various weapons, horse riding, archery, and traditional martial arts such as Silambam and Valari.
  • She was also a distinguished scholar. She was proficient in multiple languages, including Tamil, English, French, and Urdu. 
• Contributions of Rani Velu Nachiyar:
  • Strategic Alliances: She forged strategic alliances with Hyder Ali of Mysore and Gopala Nayaker.
  • She raised a formidable army that included a dedicated women’s battalion and the queen named her women’s army “Udaiyaal” in her adopted daughter’s honour.
  • Her army commander Kuyili, participated is considered the “first woman martyr” and the first suicide bomber in Indian history.
• She was the first queen to fight for freedom from the British in India. She granted powers to the Marudu brothers to administer the country in 1780.

About Cetacean morbillivirus:

• Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) refers to a viral infection affecting marine mammals, particularly cetaceans.
• It belongs to the family ​Paramyxoviridae​, which affects marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, and porpoises.
• Characteristics: These viruses are enveloped, negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses.
• It has been responsible for numerous outbreaks across the world, especially in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
• Transmission: It is highly infectious and spread by the respiratory route and direct contact.
  • The virus is shed by infected animals in ocular and respiratory secretions, urine, feces, and sloughed skin.
• It impacts the respiratory and neurological systems of the marine mammals, and can lead to mass strandings and deaths.
• Treatment: There is no treatment for morbillivirus infections in marine mammals, only supportive care.

What are Cetaceans?

• The Cetacea are one of the most distinctive and highly specialized orders of mammals.
• Cetaceans (order Cetacea) are aquatic mammals, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises.
• Cetaceans are entirely carnivorous and are distributed in all of the world's oceans.

About White-Bellied Heron:

• The white-bellied heron (Ardea insignis ) is a large heron species. It is the second largest living species of heron.
• Other Names: It is also known as the imperial heronor great white-bellied heron.
• Its presence in the ecosystem system indicates the health of the rivers, the environment, the fish population, water quality.
• Habitat: It inhabits the wetlands of tropical and subtropical forests in the foothills of the eastern Himalayas.
• Distribution: It is mainly living in the foothills of the eastern Himalayas in northeast India and Bhutan to northern 
• Diet: It prefers free-flowing riverine habitats with low disturbance, and predominantly depends on fish found in the river rapids.
• Threats: It is threatened by habitat loss, increasing disturbance and habitat degradation due to conversion of wetlands for agriculture and expansion of settlements.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
  • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule-I

About Skilling for AI Readiness (SOAR) Programme:

• It is an initiative of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE).
• Aim: It aims to integrate artificial intelligence learning into India’s school education and training ecosystem, preparing both students and teachers for a rapidly evolving digital world.
• It has a vision to position India as a global leader in AI by preparing its youth for AI-driven careers and entrepreneurial ventures
• Features of Skilling for AI Readiness (SOAR) Programme:
  • Target: It focuses on school students from classes 6 to 12 and educators across India.
  • Course: It is offers three targeted 15-hour modules for students and a 45-hour module for teachers.
  • These courses introduce foundational AI and machine learning concepts, along with data literacy and the ethical use of technology.
  • Funding: To this, government provided ₹500 crore to establish a Centre of Excellence in Artificial Intelligence for Education.
    • The centre will focus on developing AI-based learning tools, promoting multilingual AI resources for Indian languages, and fostering innovative classroom practices.
    • It will also strengthen AI curriculum development across technical institutions and complement existing efforts by IITs and AICTE-approved colleges that already offer advanced courses in machine learning, deep learning, and data analytics.

About Cellulitis:

• Cellulitis is a common skin infection caused mostly by streptococcus and staphylococcus bacteria.
• It usually affects the legs, feet and toes.
• Common Sites: It can affect the tissues beneath the skin and can affect any part of the body such as the face, arms, hands and fingers.
• Risk factor: Anyone can contract cellulitis, but persons with skin wounds, or compromised immune systems, which allows the bacteria to enter easily, are at higher risk.
• Cellulitis is not contagious but in rare cases if you have an open wound and have skin-to-skin contact with an infected person’s open wound.
• Symptoms of Cellulitis:
  • Infected skin may appear slightly discoloured, and warm to touch. As the infection spreads, the discolouration darkens and the skin swells and becomes tender.
  • Person could have fever, feel fatigued, experience chills, develop spots on the skin, blisters filled with fluid and dimpling of the skin. 
• Treatment: It usually consists of a course of oral antibiotics. Severe cases may need hospitalisation and IV antibiotics.

About Land Stack:

• It is an integrated, GIS-based digital platform designed to consolidate all land records into a singular, accessible platform.
• It is inspired by successful models in nations such as Singapore, the UK and Finland. 
• It was launched under the Digital India Land Record Modernisation Programme (DILRMP).
• Benefits of Land Stack:
  • The Land Stack portal enables informed decision-making by citizens through integrated access to land-related information.
  • It enhances citizen convenience, transparency and trust.
  • It reduces the risk of inadvertent purchase of unauthorised or non-compliant properties.
  • It improves inter-departmental coordination and supports data-driven governance.
  • It represents a significant e-Governance reform in land administration.

What is Glossary of Revenue Terms?

• It provides meanings of various land-related revenue terms in Vernacular, Hindi, English, and Roman scripts.
• The objective is to harmonize terminology to make land data comparable and interoperable nationally, without replacing State-specific terminology.
• It serves as an authoritative reference for revenue officials, policymakers, judicial authorities, and citizens.

About Galaxy Frog:

• Galaxy frogs (Melanobatrachus indicus) are one of the rarest and most dazzling amphibians in the world.
• Its dorsal region is warty and speckled with bluish-white spots that resemble stars in the night sky, hence the name 'Galaxy frog'.
• The frog belongs to the family Microhylidae and sub-family Melanobatrachinae. 
  • It has been declared the flagship species of Mathikettan Shola National Park in Idukki , Kerala.
• Distribution: It is endemic to wet evergreen forests of southern Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• Characteristics of Galaxy Frog:
  • Unlike other frogs, the Galaxy Frog doesn’t have a vocal sac and hence it can’t be identified through its calls.
  • The bright-coloured spots are being inferred to aid the frog in communication.
  • It is a nocturnal species and extremely sensitive to light.
  • It absorbs water and oxygen through the skin, so moist air is a must for this species. 
  • It keeps the skin moist by secreting mucus.
• Threats: Major threats to these creatures are the conversion of forest areas to farm land, firewood collection and landslides.
• Photo tourism has emerged as a new danger to galaxy frogs.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

About Voice over WiFi:

• It is a technology that allows voice calls over Wi-Fi networks, bypassing traditional cellular networks.
• It enables customers to make and receive voice calls and messages over a Wi-Fi network.
• It is an IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)-based service using the customer’s existing mobile number and phone dialer, without the need for third-party applications.
• It is also known as Wi-Fi Calling.
• It's built directly into your phone's operating system and works seamlessly with your existing phone number and contacts.
• Working of Voice over Wi-Fi: It works by utilizing Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology to transmit voice data as digital packets over an internet connection.
• Advantages of Voice over Wi-Fi:
  • It ensures clear and reliable connectivity in areas with weak mobile signal such as homes, offices, basements, and remote locations.
  • It helps reduce network congestion and is offered free of cost, with no additional charges for Wi-Fi calls.
  • It ensures clear and reliable connectivity in areas with weak mobile signal such as homes, offices, basements, and remote locations.

About  District Mineral Foundations (DMFs):

• DMFs are statutory bodies in India established by the state governments by notification.
• They derive their legal status from the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, as amended as the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015.
• In any district affected by mining-related operations, the State Government shall, by notification, establish a trust, as a non-profit body, to be called the DMF.
• Purpose: To work in the interest and benefit of persons and areas affected by mining-related operations in a manner as may be prescribed by the respective State Government.
• Jurisdiction:
  • The operation of DMFs falls under the jurisdiction of the relevant State Government.
  • Composition and functions of the DMF are prescribed by the State Governments.
• Funding: It is funded through the contributions from the holders of major or minor mineral concessions in the district, as may be prescribed by the Central or State Government.
• The Central Government has notified the rates of contribution payable by miners to the DMFs.
• The Fund available with the Trust shall be used for:
  • The overall development of the area affected by mining-related operations in the District in accordance with the Annual Action Plan prepared by the Trustees of the Foundation for the purpose.
  • Creation of local infrastructure for socio-economic purposes.
  • Providing, maintaining, or upgrading community assets and services for the local population in the area affected by mining-related operations.
  • Organising or conducting training programmes to skill development and capacity building for creating employment and self-employment capabilities.

_{Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY):}

• The Ministry of Mines launched PMKKKY in 2015 for the welfare of areas and people affected by mining-related operations, using the funds generated by DMFs.
• Objectives:
  • To implement various developmental and welfare projects in mining-affected areas, complementing the existing ongoing schemes of the State and Central Government.
  • To minimize/mitigate the adverse impacts, during and after mining, on the environment, health, and socio-economics of people in mining districts.
  • To ensure long-term sustainable livelihoods for the affected people in mining areas.
• Utilisation of Funds:
  • At least 60% of PMKKKY funds to be utilized for high-priority areas such as Drinking water supply, Health care, Education, Environment preservation, etc.
  • Up to 40% of the PMKKKY to be utilized for other priority areas such as Physical infrastructure, Irrigation, Energy, and Watershed Development, etc.

About Car Nicobar Island:

• It is part of the Nicobar district in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory.
• It is the northernmost island of the Nicobar group.
• It lies south of Little Andaman and north of Nancowry Island.
• The ten-degree channel lies on the northern side of the island and separates the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands.
• Despite being a small island – under 127 sq.km. – it holds nearly half of Nicobar’s population (over 17,800 in 2011) and serves as the district headquarters.
• It is remarkably flat except for some cliffs in the north and small hilly areas in the interior.
• It is bordered by a silvery beach and areas of flat ground consisting of coraline diluvium.
• It is inhabited primarily by the Nicobarese tribal community (Scheduled Tribe).
• The climate of Car Nicobar Island is a tropical monsoon climate, as it is just 9 degrees from the equator, with an annual rainfall of 400 mm.
• The Car Nicobar islands do not have any evergreen forests, which dominate the central and southern islands of the Nicobars.
• Most of the island is covered with coconut plantations, and natural flora is present only in the interior areas.
• The island has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.
• The island was severely affected by the tsunami that was caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which led to many deaths and damaged infrastructure.
  • Car Nicobar lies 750 km (470 mi) from the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the ensuing tsunamis struck it with great force.

About Vishnugad Pipalkoti Hydro Electric Project (VPHEP):

• It is a run-of-river hydropower scheme being developed on the Alaknanda River (a major tributary of the Ganga River) in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
• It is designed to provide peaking power to India’s Northern Grid.
• The project, when completed, will generate an estimated 1,665 gigawatt-hours (or million kilowatt-hours) of electricity in a typical year.
• All water diverted from the river will be returned to the river.
• It is being developed by THDC India Ltd (formerly Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Limited) and financed by the World Bank.
  • THDC is a joint venture between the government of India and the government of Uttar Pradesh.

About Mount Bur Ni Telong:

• It is an active stratovolcano.
• It is located in Indonesia’s westernmost province of Aceh.
• It is one of the best climbing spots in Aceh.
• The conical Bur ni Telong volcano was constructed at the southern base of the massive Bur ni Geureudong volcanic complex, one of the largest in northern Sumatra.
• It is formed by multiple layers of lava and eruptive materials, making it prone to explosive eruptions and highly hazardous.

What is a Stratovolcano?

• It is a tall, steep, and cone-shaped type of volcano.
• Unlike flat shield volcanoes, they have higher peaks.
• They are typically found above subduction zones, and they are often part of large volcanically active regions, such as the Ring of Fire that frames much of the Pacific Ocean.
• Strato Volcanoes comprise the largest percentage (~60%) of the Earth’s individual volcanoes, and most are characterized by eruptions of andesite and dacite, lavas that are cooler and more viscous than basalt.
• These more viscous lavas allow gas pressures to build up to high levels. Therefore, these volcanoes often suffer explosive eruptions.
• They are usually about half-half lava and pyroclastic material, and the layering of these products gives them their other common name of composite volcanoes.
• At the peak, stratovolcanoes usually have a small crater. The crater may be filled with water or ice, or it may contain a volcanic dome during a period of relative inactivity.

About Eastern Imperial Eagle:

• It is a large bird of prey.
• Scientific Name: Aquila heliaca
• Distribution:
  • It breeds in southeastern Europe and extensively through West and Central Asia.
  • Most populations are migratory and winter in northeastern Africa, the Middle East and South and East Asia.
• Like all eagles, the eastern imperial eagle is a member of the family Accipitridae. Furthermore, its well feathered legs mark it as a member of the subfamily Aquilinae.
• Features:
  • The species displays reverse sexual dimorphism, as do most birds of prey, in which males are usually smaller than the females.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR):

• It is located in the Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu, at the tri-junction of three states, viz., Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
• It lies on the northeastern and northwestern slopes of the Nilgiri hills, which is a part of the Western Ghats.
• It is part of the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, the first biosphere reserve in India.
• The name Mudumalai means ”the ancient hill range”.
• Habitat: A variety of habitats ranging from tropical evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest, moist teak forest, dry teak forest, secondary grasslands, and swamps are found here.
• River: The Moyar River runs through the reserve.
• The Oscar-winning ‘Elephant Whisperers’ was filmed at the Theppakadu Elephant Camp, located inside the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.
• Flora:
  • It has tall grasses, commonly referred to as “Elephant Grass”, bamboo of the giant variety, and valuable timber species like teak, rosewood, etc.
  • It has wild relatives of cultivated plants,, wild rice, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon, etc.
  • The habitat also has swampy areas (Vayals) and grasslands.
• Fauna:
  • The faunal assemblage includes: elephant, gaur, sambar, four-horned antelope, spotted deer, barking deer, blackbuck, wild pig, mouse deer, and predators like tigers, leopards, and wild dogs.

About Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine:

• The 56 x 45 mm CQB Carbine is an indigenously designed, developed and manufactured (IDDM) compact firearm.
• It has been designed by DRDO’s Armament Research & Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune, and is being manufactured by Bharat Forge Ltd (a Pune based Indian multinational).
• CQB carbines are compact, lightweight weapons designed specifically for urban warfare, close-range engagements and counter-terrorism
• Their reduced size compared to standard rifles offers enhanced manoeuvrability in confined spaces whilst maintaining operational effectiveness.
• It has an effective range of 200 meters.
• The weapon also uses a 30-round curved magazine to ensure reliable feeding during rapid fire.
• It can fire both NATO-standard and INSAS ammunition.

About Oreshnik Missile:

• It is a Russian-made intermediate-range nuclear-capable ballistic missile.
• It was first launched operationally in 2024, in a precision strike targeting the Pivdenmash defence-industrial facility in Dnipro, Ukraine.
• Features:
  • It is mounted on a mobile transporter and launcher for rapid deployment and concealment.
  • It has an estimated range range of 5,000 kilometres.
  • Equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs), the “Oreshnik” can carry six to eight warheads, conventional or nuclear, hitting multiple targets simultaneously.
  • It is a hypersonic missile, capable of reaching speeds up to Mach 10.

About Bomb Cyclone:

• It is a large midlatitude storm resulting from explosive cyclogenesis (or, informally, bombogenesis), a type of accelerated extratropical cyclone development in which surface pressure falls substantially over a 24-hour
• In structure, a bomb cyclone is indistinguishable from any other intense midlatitude storm.
  • The center of the storm is a low-pressure cell (or cyclone) that draws winds near the surface inward.
• However, a bomb cyclone is set apart by its rapid rate of intensification. The intensification required to classify as "bombogenesis" varies by latitude.
• Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric rivers and typically form in winter when cold and warm air masses collide.
• The four most active regions where extra-tropical explosive cyclogenesis occurs in the world are
  • the Northwest Pacific
  • the North Atlantic
  • the Southwest Pacific
  • the South Atlantic
• The precipitation associated with a bomb cyclone is intense, ranging from heavy downpours to strong thunderstorms to blizzards and heavy snowfalls, along with strong winds.

About Nimesulide:

• First introduced in Italy in 1985, it is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used for its pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and fever-reducing effects.
• It is commonly used to manage acute pain, musculoskeletal disorders, dental pain, and symptoms associated with conditions such as osteoarthritis and dysmenorrhea.
• Nimesulide works by inhibiting the action of cyclooxygenase (COX), an enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandins-chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever.
• By blocking this enzyme, Nimesulide reduces the levels of prostaglandins, thus providing relief from pain and inflammation.
• By targeting the underlying inflammatory process rather than just masking the pain, it helps relieve swelling, improves mobility and functions in affected areas, and enhances overall comfort and quality of life.
• Side Effects:
  • Long-term usage may harm the liver or result in significant side effects, including gastrointestinal bleeding or renal issues.
  • Apart from this, other side effects like sour stomach, dizziness, skin infection, diarrhoea, and increased liver enzymes might be observed in individuals.
• Regulation:
  • From its early years, nimesulide attracted safety concerns and was never approved for use in countries including the United States, the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.
  • In 2008, the International Society of Drug Bulletins, a WHO-supported network, called for a global ban on nimesulide.
  • India banned the use of nimesulide in children below 12 years of age in 2011 but continued to allow its use in older patients. However, concerns have persisted.

About Sirkeer Malkoha:

• The sirkeer malkoha, or sirkeer cuckoo, is a special type of cuckoo bird.
• Scientific Name: Taccocua leschenaultii
• Unlike some cuckoos, it does not lay its eggs in other birds' nests.
• Distribution: This species is widespread across the sub-Himalayan Indian subcontinent, extending into Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and, more patchily, into Pakistan and Rajasthan.
• Habitat: It is typically found in scrub and thin forest habitats, often favoring hilly terrain.
• Features:
  • These birds have special feet called zygodactyle feet. This means two toes point forward and two point backward. This helps them grip branches and move on the ground.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.

About Bulgaria:

• Location: It is located in the south eastern region of the European continent, occupying the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by Romania, Turkey, Greece, Macedonia and Serbia.
• Maritime Border: It is bounded by the Black Sea in the east.
• Capital City: Sofia
• Geographical Features of Bulgaria:
  • Mountain Ranges: The Balkan Mountains cut across the central part of the country, while the Rhodope Mountains run through southern Bulgaria, along its border with Greece.
  • Highest Point: Musala Mt, located in the Rila Mountains.
  • Major Rivers: Major rivers include the Danube River, Iskur, Maritsa, Struma, Tundzha and Yantra rivers.
  • Climate: Most of Bulgaria has a moderate continental climate, which is tempered by Mediterranean influences in the south. 
  • Natural Resources: Bauxite, Copper, lead, zinc, coal etc.

What is Eurozone?

• The eurozone, or officially the euro area, refers to the geographic and economic region comprising those members of the European Union that have fully adopted the euro as their official currency.

About Pralay Missile:

• It is an indigenously developed short-range, surface-to-surface
• Features of Pralay Missile:
  • It is a solid propellant quasi-ballistic.
  • It is capable of carrying multiple types of warheads against various targets.
  • Range: The missile has a range of 150-500 km and can be launched from a mobile launcher.
  • The missile is capable of carrying conventional warheads.
  • It is equipped with guidance systems that provide a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters.
  • Speed: It reaches terminal speeds of Mach 6.1 and can engage targets such as radar installations, command centers, and airstrips.
  • It has the ability to change its path after covering a certain range midair.
• Developed by: It has been developed by Research Centre Imarat and in collaboration with other Defence Research & Development Organisation labs.
• Industry partners: Bharat Dynamics Limited & Bharat Electronics Limited and many other industries and MSMEs.

About Stingless Bees:

• Stingless Bees are a class of bees which either do not have stingers or have stingers that cannot cause much pain.
• Common genera of stingless bees: Austroplebeia, Melipona, and Tetragonula.
• Defence Mechanism: They do possess stingers, but they are too small to be useful in defense. Instead of stinging, stingless bees use their mandibles to bite their attackers.
• Stingless bees are among the planet’s oldest pollinators, with a remarkable concentration of species in the Amazon rainforest.
• Distribution: They are found in tropical regions across the world, and about half of the 500 known species live in the Amazon.
  • Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Americas are the main areas where the stingless bee is found. 
  • In India, these bees are reported primarily from the northeastern, eastern, and southern Indian States.
• Benefits: Stingless bees can be used for pollination without fear of being stung. They are known for their popular medicinal honey and pollination potential.
• Threats: Deforestation has reduced nesting sites, while pesticide use, climate change and competition from invasive honeybees have further weakened populations.

About PathGennie:

• It is a novel computational framework developed by scientists can significantly accelerate the simulation of rare molecular events.
• It is open source software developed for fast tracking of drug discovery by accurately tracking molecular unbinding pathways.
• It addresses a long-standing challenge in molecular simulations — accurately modelling how drug molecules detach from their target proteins.
  • This process, known as ligand unbinding, plays a key role in determining a drug’s “residence time”, which is often more relevant to therapeutic effectiveness than binding strength alone.
• It predicts the potential drugs unbind from their protein targets without the artificial distortions commonly used in standard methods.
• It mimics natural selection on a microscopic scale instead of forcing the molecule to move.
• Features of PathGennie:
  • It captures rare molecular events without artificial acceleration.
  • It generates multiple competitive unbinding pathways.
  • It estimates residence time of drug molecules.
  • It eliminates bias introduced by external force-based simulations.
• Potential Applications:
  • It addresses problems such as chemical reactions, catalytic processes, phase transitions or self-assembly phenomena.
  • It is also compatible with modern machine-learning techniques which ensures integrated into diverse simulation pipelines.

About Copper:

• Copper is a naturally occurring chemical element with the symbol Cu.
• It is a highly versatile and essential metal, has been at the core of human development for over 10,000 years.
• Occurrence: It is found as a free metal in nature. It also occurs in minerals like chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and bornite.
• Properties of Copper:
  • Physical Properties: It is known for its high conductivity, malleability, and corrosion resistance.
  • Recyclability: Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss in quality, making it an eco-friendly metal.
• Major Copper Reserves in India:
  • Rajasthan: Khetri and Jhunjhunu belt.
  • Madhya Pradesh: Malanjkhand mine, the largest open-pit copper mine in India.
  • Jharkhand: Singhbhum copper belt.
• Major Countries with Copper Reserve: Chile, Australia, Peru and Russia.
• Applications of Copper:
  • Electrical Industry: Used in wiring, motors, and transformers due to its high conductivity.
  • Construction: Roofing, plumbing, and heating systems utilize copper.
  • Automobile Industry: Essential for wiring, radiators, and connectors.
  • Electronics: It is used in integrated circuits and semiconductors rely heavily on copper.
  • Renewable Energy: It is crucial for wind turbines, solar panels, and electric vehicles.