Why in news?

Recently, Union Road Transport and Highways Minister advocated for 100% ethanol blending in India, linking it to the country’s broader goal of achieving energy self-reliance and reducing dependence on fossil fuel imports.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Understanding 100% Ethanol Blending in India
• Ethanol Production in India: Sources, Challenges, and Implications
• CAFE III and Ethanol Blending in India: Linkages and Implications
• India’s Path to Energy Security: Strategies and Challenges

Understanding 100% Ethanol Blending in India

• 100% blending refers to the use of pure ethanol (E100) as fuel.
• Unlike petrol, ethanol has lower energy density, meaning it delivers 45–55% less energy per litre, which can affect vehicle performance and fuel efficiency.
• Most conventional petrol vehicles in India are designed for E20 (20% ethanol blending) or lower.
• Higher blends like E85 or E100 require flex-fuel engines, which can operate on varying ethanol-petrol mixtures.
• Need for Flex-Fuel Vehicles
  • To support high ethanol blends, vehicles must be specially designed with:
    • Corrosion-resistant fuel systems
    • Advanced sensors and engine control units
    • Optimised tuning for ethanol combustion
  • While countries like Brazil have widely adopted such vehicles, India currently has limited availability, with models from companies like Toyota and prototypes from Maruti Suzuki and Hyundai expected in the coming years.
• Infrastructure and Supply Chain Requirements
  • Achieving 100% ethanol blending would require not just new vehicles, but also significant changes in fuel supply chains, storage, and distribution systems, aligned with initiatives like domestic manufacturing.

Ethanol Production in India: Sources, Challenges, and Implications

• India largely produces ethanol from sugarcane, making it the dominant feedstock for blending.
• However, sugarcane is water-intensive and often grown in water-stressed regions, raising concerns about sustainability and its impact on food supply and prices.
• Shift to Second-Generation Ethanol
  • To address these concerns, the government is promoting second-generation (2G) ethanol made from crop residues like rice straw, with support from entities such as Indian Oil Corporation.
  • This approach also aims to reduce stubble burning, a major source of air pollution in North India.
• Cost and Policy Support
  • Ethanol production remains costlier or comparable to petrol, necessitating government support and administered pricing to ensure viability and encourage adoption.
• Environmental Trade-offs
  • While ethanol combustion leads to lower emissions of carbon monoxide and particulate matter, its overall environmental impact depends on:
    • Land use changes
    • Use of fertilisers and pesticides
    • High water consumption, especially for sugarcane

CAFE III and Ethanol Blending in India: Linkages and Implications

• India introduced Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) norms in 2017 to limit the average CO₂ emissions of a manufacturer’s vehicle fleet.
• This pushed automakers to design more fuel-efficient vehicles, especially those producing high-emission models like SUVs.
• Evolution from CAFE I to CAFE III
  • CAFE I: Implemented in 2017
  • CAFE II: Enforced in 2022
  • CAFE III: To be enforced from April 1, 2027, with ~30% stricter emission targets.
    • CAFE III significantly tightens emission limits, compelling manufacturers to adopt cleaner technologies.
• Indirect Link with Ethanol Blending (E100)
• While CAFE norms do not directly mandate ethanol use, CAFE III could incentivise higher ethanol blends (E85/E100) as a way to reduce emissions and meet stricter targets.
• This may help overcome public resistance to ethanol fuels, which currently offer lower mileage.
• Efficiency and Consumer Concerns
  • E20 fuel delivers 6–7% lower mileage compared to petrol. This raises concerns about higher fuel costs for consumers.
  • Adoption of higher blends depends on balancing cost, efficiency, and environmental benefits.
• Progress of Ethanol Blending in India
  • Ethanol Blending Programme launched in 2003.
  • Blending increased from ~2% (2014) to:
    • E10 by 2022
    • E20 rollout from 2023, replacing earlier blends by 2025
  • Target of nationwide E20 originally set for 2030, achieved earlier due to policy push.
• Infrastructure and Industry Challenges
  • Aggressive blending targets have raised concerns about:
    • Fuel storage and transportation infrastructure
    • Vehicle compatibility and readiness
  • These remain key bottlenecks for scaling up ethanol use.
  • CAFE III, though not directly linked to E100, can act as a policy lever to accelerate ethanol adoption, but its success will depend on addressing efficiency concerns, infrastructure gaps, and consumer acceptance.

India’s Path to Energy Security: Strategies and Challenges

• Diversifying Energy Sources
  • India has been working to reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels by exploring alternative oil sources, securing uranium for nuclear energy, and expanding renewable energy deployment.
  • However, efforts are often constrained by geopolitical factors like sanctions.
• Limits of Domestic Production
  • Initiatives to boost indigenous oil and gas output under the Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) have delivered limited results, while domestic manufacturing in key energy technologies remains underdeveloped.
• Transition to a Hydrogen Economy
  • India is increasingly focusing on green hydrogen as a long-term solution. Under the National Green Hydrogen Mission, the aim is to:
    • Produce hydrogen at $1 per kg (globally $3–6/kg)
    • Compete with conventional fuels like diesel
    • Potentially become an energy exporter
• Circular Economy and Alternative Feedstocks
• The strategy includes producing hydrogen from municipal waste and sewage, aligning energy goals with a circular economy approach to improve sustainability.
• Infrastructure and Technological Challenges
  • Despite policy push, the hydrogen sector faces major bottlenecks:
    • Lack of commercial-scale transport and storage systems
    • Limited readiness for large-scale deployment

Why in news?

The incident marks a sharp escalation in tensions in the Strait of Hormuz, where Iran attacked three ships and detained two within its territorial waters. This action is seen as retaliation for U.S. seizures of Iranian-linked vessels on the high seas, including a major crude carrier intercepted between Sri Lanka and Indonesia.

Overall, the developments highlight a cycle of tit-for-tat maritime actions between Iran and the United States, further destabilising a critical global energy route.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Strait of Hormuz During the War: Restricted Transit and Strategic Control
• U.S. Actions in the Strait of Hormuz Conflict: Escalation and Maritime Control
• Legal Framework for Interceptions at Sea: UNCLOS and Key Principles
• Iran’s Rights in the Strait of Hormuz Under International Law
• What Lies Ahead: IMO’s Role and Possible Resolution

Strait of Hormuz During the War: Restricted Transit and Strategic Control

• At the onset of the conflict on February 28, vessel movement through the Strait of Hormuz dropped sharply from around 100 ships daily to only a few.
• Iran introduced a system regulating passage based on geopolitical considerations, reportedly charging high tolls, though India maintained it did not pay any fee and exercised its right to free navigation under international law.
• Despite restrictions, several Indian-linked and Iranian vessels were allowed transit, reflecting a selective and strategic control of this critical maritime route.

U.S. Actions in the Strait of Hormuz Conflict: Escalation and Maritime Control

• Breakdown of Negotiations with Iran - During talks, Iran sought the right to regulate ship movement and impose tolls in the Strait of Hormuz. After negotiations collapsed on April 12, tensions escalated sharply.
• Declaration of a Strategic Blockade - Donald Trump announced a blockade of Iranian ships, not through physical naval barriers but via control measures like radio warnings, aiming to restrict Iran’s influence over maritime traffic.
• Interception and Seizure of Iranian-Linked Vessels
  • U.S. forces intensified action by:
    • Boarding and seizing the container ship Touska, suspected of carrying military-use cargo
    • Intercepting the crude carrier Tifani in international waters, allegedly linked to Iran’s oil trade
    • Both vessels are now under U.S. custody.
  • These measures are part of a broader U.S. strategy to disrupt Iran’s oil exports and revenue streams, weaken its control over the strait, and deter its maritime activities.

Legal Framework for Interceptions at Sea: UNCLOS and Key Principles

• Strategic straits have historically been flashpoints in conflicts, leading to treaties governing navigation in regions like Turkey and Egypt.
• These agreements laid the groundwork for a broader global legal framework.
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea established that the oceans are a shared global commons.
• Its core principle is the freedom of navigation, especially for merchant ships, with minimal restrictions.
• High Seas: Freedom with Limited Exceptions
  • On the high seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction, ships enjoy unrestricted navigation rights. Interception is allowed only under specific conditions:
    • Hot pursuit of vessels involved in crimes
    • Authorisation by the United Nations Security Council
    • Ships without nationality
    • Consent from the ship’s flag state
  • Within a country’s territorial waters, ships retain the right of “innocent passage”, meaning transit is allowed as long as it does not threaten the coastal state’s security.
• U.S. Sanctions vs International Law
  • The United States often uses sanctions and ship interceptions as tools of economic pressure.
  • However, these actions are based on domestic law rather than international law, and are not necessarily backed by UN authorisation.

Iran’s Rights in the Strait of Hormuz Under International Law

• The Strait of Hormuz is classified as an international strait, where the territorial waters of Iran and Oman overlap, leaving no high seas zone.
• Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the principle of “transit passage” applies—ensuring free and uninterrupted movement of ships.
• This means Iran cannot block, regulate, or deny passage to merchant vessels.
• However, it can enforce limited conditions: ships must move continuously without delay, follow designated routes, use the strait only for transit, and avoid violating local laws such as illegal loading or unloading.

What Lies Ahead: IMO’s Role and Possible Resolution

• The International Maritime Organization is expected to play a key role in de-escalating tensions in the Strait of Hormuz.
• It is working with Iran to facilitate safe passage and evacuation of ships while upholding freedom of navigation.
• The IMO has opposed tolls and permit-based restrictions, and has formally condemned Iran’s actions against commercial vessels, though it has not similarly criticised U.S. measures.
• Overall, diplomatic engagement through the IMO may shape the next phase of resolution.

Why in the News?

• The Supreme Court invoked its extraordinary powers under Article 142 to issue directions on highway safety following two fatal road accidents.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Article 142 (Basics, Link with Article 21, etc.)
• News Summary (Court’s Observations on Recent Case, Key Observations, etc.)

Article 142 and Complete Justice

• Article 142 of the Constitution empowers the Supreme Court to pass any order necessary to ensure “complete justice” in a case.
• This provision is unique as it allows the Court to go beyond existing statutory frameworks when required.
• It is often used in situations where legislative or administrative gaps exist, and immediate intervention is necessary.
• The power is discretionary but must align with constitutional principles. Over time, it has been used in matters relating to environmental protection, governance reforms, and public safety.

Link with Right to Life under Article 21

• The Supreme Court has consistently interpreted Article 21 broadly.
• It includes not only protection against unlawful deprivation of life but also the right to live with dignity and safety.
• In the context of road safety, the Court has clarified that ensuring safe infrastructure and preventing avoidable accidents is a positive obligation of the State.

Road Safety in India: Structural Concerns

• India records a high number of road accidents annually.
• National Highways constitute only about 2% of total road length but account for nearly 30% of road fatalities, indicating severe safety gaps.
• Key issues include:
  • Poor enforcement,
  • Unsafe parking practices,
  • Lack of surveillance and
  • Inadequate infrastructure, such as lighting and emergency services.

News Summary

• Background of the Case
  • The case originated from two major accidents in November 2025.
  • One incident involved a bus hitting a stationary trailer on the Bharatmala Expressway in Rajasthan, killing 15 people. Another accident in Telangana resulted in 19 deaths when a lorry collided with a bus while avoiding a pothole.
  • These incidents prompted the Supreme Court to take suo motu cognisance of road safety issues.
• Observations of the Supreme Court
  • The Court criticised the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) and state public works departments for lapses in safety management.
  • The Court observed that highways must not become “corridors of peril” due to administrative negligence or infrastructural gaps.
  • The Court also highlighted the dangers of illegal parking of heavy vehicles, particularly near roadside establishments, which significantly increases accident risks.
• Key Directions Issued by the Court
  • The Supreme Court issued a comprehensive set of directives.
  • Parking of heavy and commercial vehicles on highways has been prohibited except in designated areas such as lay-bys and wayside amenities.
  • The Court directed the use of Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) to monitor highways and detect violations through GPS-enabled systems.
  • It mandated the deployment of ambulances and recovery vehicles at intervals of 75 km to ensure quick response in emergencies.
  • Further, authorities have been instructed to identify accident-prone black spots within 45 days and install safety measures such as lighting, cameras, and warning signs.
• Regulation of Roadside Activities
  • The Court has prohibited the construction of new dhabas and commercial establishments within the Right of Way (ROW) of highways.
  • It also directed the demolition of unauthorised structures and imposed restrictions on land use within a specified distance from highways.
  • These measures aim to reduce roadside congestion and unsafe practices.
• Strengthening Enforcement Mechanisms
  • The Court called for the creation of dedicated highway surveillance teams involving police and transport departments for round-the-clock monitoring.
  • Integration of surveillance systems with e-challan mechanisms has been emphasised to ensure effective enforcement.

About Sea Slugs:

• Sea slugs, sometimes called ocean slugs, water slugs, or nudibranchs, are soft-bodied marine molluscs found in all the world’s oceans, from shallows to the deep sea.
• They are a type of gastropod, a large group of mollusks that includes both marine and land species such as snails and slugs.
• They have no shells, quills, or mantle cavities.
• They look like naked snails, i.e., without shells.
• These slow-moving grazers consume algae, sponges, and other small invertebrates, showcasing a range of feeding habits.
• They are usually found in coral reefs, and their presence is a significant indicator of a strong coral ecosystem.
• Sea slugs are renowned for their vibrant colours and intricate patterns, which often serve as warning signals to predators due to their toxicity.
• They get their toxicity from the creatures they eat, and some sea slugs can even keep the stinging cells of jellyfish inside their bodies.
• On their heads, nudibranchs have tentacles that serve as important sensory organs, helping them detect chemicals and movement in the water.
• When the sea slug eats, it absorbs and displays its prey’s pigment—the substance that gives the prey its color.
• Beyond their striking appearance, sea slugs possess other intriguing traits.
  • Some can photosynthesise, producing their own food with sunlight.
  • Others regenerate lost limbs, and a few can steal genes from their prey and incorporate them into their DNA.
• Most sea slugs are active throughout the day, but some species are also nocturnal.

About Cerium–Magnesium Changesite:

• It is a newly discovered lunar mineral.
• The mineral was discovered in a lunar meteorite dubbed Pakepake 005, the first of its kind to have fallen within China.
  • It is a single spherical meteorite weighing 44 grams, with a dark molten outer shell.
• The new mineral is colourless, transparent and brittle.
• Despite its tiny size, it holds significant scientific value due to its unique chemical and structural properties.
• One of the most striking features is its fluorescent behaviour, meaning it emits light under certain conditions.
• This property could have practical applications in advanced technologies, particularly in the development of next-generation LED materials.
• The mineral’s composition, especially its rare earth element ratios, along with its magnesium and iron content, offers valuable clues about the processes that shaped the Moon’s surface and interior.
• Variations in its crystal structure could help researchers better understand how lunar minerals form and evolve under extreme conditions.