About Raika tribe

• The Raika tribe is an indigenous pastoralist community primarily inhabiting the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, notably around Kumbhalgarh in Rajsamand district.
• Also known as Rabaris, they have a distinct socio-cultural relationship with camels.
• The Raikas have historically been the principal breeders of Rajasthan’s indigenous camel breeds, especially the Marwari camel, known for its strength, endurance, and desert adaptability.
• For the Raikas, camel herding is not just a livelihood but a cultural identity, woven into rituals, oral traditions, and seasonal migrations.
• The Raikas possess traditional knowledge of pasture cycles, animal health, and biodiversity, which has historically sustained the fragile ecology of Rajasthan’s arid landscapes.
• Their age-old migratory grazing routes allowed camels to feed on medicinal desert shrubs, enhancing both animal health and ecosystem balance.

What is Earth's Magnetic Field?

• The Earth’s magnetic field acts as an invisible shield that protects the planet from harmful cosmic and solar radiation.
• It is generated 2,900 km below the surface in the liquid outer core through electric currents arising from the movement of molten iron, powered by heat from the inner core and Earth’s rotation.
• This field forms a protective bubble that extends into space, shielding the atmosphere and biosphere.

Magnetic Reversals vs. Excursions

• A magnetic reversal occurs when the magnetic north and south poles swap places and retain that position for over 100,000 years (e.g., Brunhes-Matuyama reversal 780,000 years ago).
• A geomagnetic excursion is a temporary flip in polarity lasting a shorter time and is 10 times more frequent than reversals (e.g., Laschamps excursion 41,000 years ago, where strength dropped to 5%).
• Over the last 83 million years, Earth has witnessed 183 magnetic reversals.
• Causes of Magnetic Fluctuations: Driven by turbulent fluid dynamics in the outer core, influenced by Earth’s rotation and heat from the inner core. Clockwise flow maintains normal polarity; anticlockwise shifts trigger reversals.
• Current Trends and Observations: 10% Weakening of magnetic field strength over the past 200 years; at current rates, it could vanish in 1,500–1,600 years. The North Magnetic Pole drifts 35 km/year toward Siberia, while the South Pole shifts 5 km/year, reflecting core turbulence.

Research Methodologies

• Satellites and Observatories: Provide real-time data (e.g., ESA’s soundtracks converting magnetic signals into audio).
• Historical data: Ship logs (since 1590) and archaeological artifacts (e.g., ancient pottery) preserve geomagnetic signatures.
• Geological samples: Lava rocks, lake/ocean sediments (e.g., Bagwalipokar excursions in Uttarakhand) reveal past field behavior.
• Cosmogenic isotopes: Beryllium-10 and carbon-14 in ice cores spike during weak fields (e.g., doubled during Laschamps).

What is Asteroid YR4?

• YR4 is a Near-Earth Asteroid (NEA) discovered in December 2024 using the ATLAS telescope in Chile.
• Its orbit brings it within 1.3 times the Earth-Sun distance, making it a Near-Earth Object (NEO).
• Initially, YR4 triggered the highest-ever NASA asteroid impact alert in February 2025.
• New infrared data from the James Webb Space Telescope estimates its size at ~65 metres, comparable to a 10-storey building, which is below the 140-meter threshold for classification as a "Potentially Hazardous Asteroid".
• Earlier, YR4 had a 1% chance of hitting Earth, but the latest trajectory analysis shows a negligible risk to Earth.

What are Asteroids?

• Asteroids, also known as minor planets, are rocky remnants from the early solar system, dating back 6 billion years.
• They exhibit irregular shapes, though a few are nearly spherical, and some host small companion moons or even exist as binary or triple systems.

Classification of Asteroids

• Main Asteroid Belt: Located between Mars and Jupiter, this is where the majority of known asteroids are found.
• Trojans: These share an orbit with a planet and remain stable due to the Lagrange Points (L4 and L5), where gravitational forces from the Sun and the planet balance.
• Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs): These are asteroids whose orbits pass close to Earth’s orbit. Those that cross Earth’s orbital path are known as Earth-crossers.

 Supreme Court’s Observations

• The ruling reaffirmed that the “Right to Know” is a basic right under Article 19(1)(a) (Freedom of Speech and Expression) and Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty).

Significance of the “Right to Know”

• The Right to Know is essential to enable citizens to:
  • Participate in public discourse and democratic processes,
  • Access justice effectively, and
  • Hold public authorities accountable.
• The judgment reinforced that public discussion and criticism of courts is a legitimate aspect of democracy and must not be equated with contempt without careful consideration.

Constitutional Significance of the Right to Know

• Under Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of Speech and Expression: This article ensures the right to express opinions through speech, writing, and other media. As per the Supreme Court, this includes the Right to Know about:
  • Government activities
  • Public decision-making
  • Court proceedings
• The Court reiterated that freedom of expression covers the right to receive information, which is vital for democracy.
• Under Article 21 – Right to Life and Personal Liberty: The Right to Know is also implicit in Article 21, as it enables citizens to:
  • Access justice
  • Participate in governance
  • Live with dignity through informed decision-making
• The Supreme Court in the Menka Gandhi Case (1978) expanded Article 21 to include a broad range of rights, now including access to truthful public information:
  • Right to live with dignity,
  • Right to livelihood,
  • Right to privacy,
  • Right to shelter,
  • Right to a clean environment,
  • Right to information (including Right to Know).

About Indian Grey Wolf

• The Indian Grey Wolf is a subspecies of the Grey Wolf found in the Indian subcontinent and Southwest Asia.
• Habitat: Prefers scrublands, semi-arid grasslands, and pastoral agro-ecosystems.
• Behavior: Generally nocturnal, hunts in small packs and is less vocal than other wolf subspecies.
• Appearance: Intermediate in size between the Tibetan and Arabian wolves, but lacks a thick winter coat due to adaptation to warmer climates.
• Distribution: From Israel in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east.

Legal Protection and Forest Rules

• The Indian grey wolf is protected under:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern, but considered locally endangered in India due to sharp population decline.
  • CITES: Appendix I, indicating species threatened with extinction.
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed in Schedule I, providing the highest degree of protection in India.
• Maharashtra Forest Rules, 2014 allow the removal or elimination of trespassing animals (dogs) from reserve forests if they threaten wildlife.
• However, Forest officials hesitate to cull dogs due to animal rights concerns, considering vaccination as an alternative, though logistically difficult.
• The case highlights the complex human-animal-domestic dog interface, a rising concern in India’s open and agro-ecosystem habitats.
• It is a key example of emerging zoonotic threats (e.g., canine distemper virus) and genetic dilution through hybridisation.

Kadbanwadi Grassland, Maharashtra

• Located in Indapur tehsil, Pune, the Kadbanwadi grassland spans over 2,000 hectares and supports species such as the Bengal fox, striped hyena, Brahminy kite, and Indian grey wolf.
• The shepherd community has traditionally shared a symbiotic relationship with wolves for generations.

About Crohn's Disease:

• It is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes swelling and irritation of the tissues, called inflammation, in the digestive tract.
• Inflammation caused by Crohn's disease can affect different areas of the digestive tract in different people.
• It most commonly affects the end of the small intestine and the beginning of the large intestine.
• The inflammation often spreads into the deeper layers of the bowel.
• Crohn's disease can be both painful and debilitating. Sometimes, it may lead to serious or life-threatening complications.
• Symptoms of Crohn’s disease vary from person to person and may include diarrhea, cramping, and pain in abdomen, and weight loss.
• Treatment:
  • There's no known cure for Crohn's disease, but therapies can greatly reduce its symptoms and even bring about long-term remission and healing of inflammation.
  • With treatment, many people with Crohn's disease can function well.

About Chenab River:

• The Chenab River literally means "Moon" (Chan) and "River" (aab) is a tributary of the Indus
• Course:
  • Origin: It is formed by the confluence of two streams, Chandra and Bhaga,at Tandi in the upper Himalayas in the Lahaul and Spiti Districts of Himachal Pradesh.
  • In its upper reaches, it is also known as the
  • It flows west through Jammu and Kashmir union territory, between the steep cliffs of the Siwalik Range (south) and the Lesser Himalayas (north).
  • Turning southwest, it continues into Pakistan, descending from the uplands into the broad alluvial lowlands of Punjab province.
  • After receiving the Jhelum River near Trimmu, the Chenab empties into the Sutlej River, a tributary of the Indus River.
• Its total length is about 605 miles (974 km), and it feeds several irrigation canals.
• It is the largest river of Himachal Pradesh in terms of volume of waters.
• Tributaries: The tributaries of the Chenab River include Miyar Nalla, Sohal, Thirot, Bhut Nalla, Marusudar, and Lidrari.
• The waters of the Chenab are shared by India and Pakistan as per the terms of the Indus Water Treaty.

About Great Nicobar Island:

• It is the southernmost island of the Nicobar Islands
• It is separated from the Andaman Islands by the Ten Degree Channel.
• It covers an area of 1044 sq.km.
• It remains sparsely populated, with dense tropical rainforests covering more than 85% of its area.
• Its coastline features over 100 kilometers of untouched beaches, renowned for their stunning coral reefs and crystal-clear waters.
• It is also home to Indira Point, India's southernmost point, located less than 150 km from Indonesia.
• Mount Thullier, which is about 2,105 ft high, is the highest peak.
• Galathea, Alexandra, and Dagmar are the major rivers.
• The major tribes in Great Nicobar Island are the Shompens and the Nicobarese.
• It is home to the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO-designated site.
• Biodiversity:
  • It houses 650 species of angiosperms, ferns, gymnosperms, bryophytes, and lichens, among others.
  • The tract is rich in plant diversity and fosters a number of rare and endemic species, including Cyathea albosetacea (tree fern) and Phalaenopsis speciosa (orchid).
  • The region also harbours a large number of endemic and endangered species of fauna.
  • To date, 11 species of mammals, 32 species of birds, 7 species of reptiles and 4 species of amphibians have been found to be endemic.
  • Of these, the well-known Crab-eating Macaque, Nicobar Tree Shrew, Dugong, Nicobar Megapode, Serpent Eagle, saltwater crocodile, marine turtles and Reticulated Python are endemic and/or endangered.

About PL-15 Missile:

• The PL-15, known as “Thunderbolt-15,” is a long-range, beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM).
• It was developed by China’s 607 Institute and manufactured by the China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC).
• It can engage enemy aircraft at distances well beyond visual range.
• Features:
  • It features a dual-pulse solid-propellant rocket motor, allowing it to reach speeds exceeding Mach 5.
  • The domestic Chinese version boasts a range of 200–300 km, while the export variant, the PL-15E, has a declared maximum range of 145 km, though operational factors may reduce this to 100–120 km depending on the launch platform.
  • The missile is equipped with a high-explosive fragmentation warhead weighing 20–25 kg, optimized to destroy maneuvering aerial targets.
  • The PL-15 employs a sophisticated guidance system, combining inertial navigation, Beidou satellite updates, a two-way datalink for mid-course corrections, and a terminal active radar seeker using advanced AESA (Active Electronically Scanned Array) technology.
  • This suite provides high accuracy, resistance to electronic jamming, and the ability to engage targets in contested environments.

About Anamalai Tiger Reserve:

• It is located at an altitude of 1400 m in the Anamalai Hills of Pollachi and Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu.
• It is located on the southern side of the South Western Ghat landscape.
• It covers 1,479.87 sq. km., including 958.59 sq.km. of core area.
• It is surrounded by Parambikulum Tiger Reserve on the East, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulum National Park on the South Western side.
• The reserve is also surrounded by Nenmara, Vazhachal, Malayattur and Marayur reserved forests of Kerala.
• The Kariyan shola, Grass hills and Manjampatti of Anamalai Tiger Reserve has been identified as a world heritage site by UNESCO.
• It is home to several indigenous tribal communities such as the Kadars, Muduvars, Malasars, Malai malasars, Eravalars and Pulayars.
• Vegetation:
  • It ranges from wild wet evergreen forests and semi-evergreen forests to moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests.
  • Some part of the reserve boundary also includes the shola forests in the Anamalai Hills and rarer Montane Grasslands, Savannahs and Marshy Grasslands.
• Flora:
  • Around 2500 species of angiosperms are found in the Anamalai Tiger Reserve, with several species of Balsam, Crotalaria, Orchids, and Kurinchi.
  • The reserve is rich in wild relatives of cultivated species like mango, jackfruit, wild plantain, ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric, pepper (Piper longum), cardamom, etc.
• Fauna: The important wild animals of the reserve include: Tiger, Asiatic elephant, Sambar, Spotted deer, Barking deer, Jackal, Leopard, Jungle cat, etc.

About Pangenome

• A pangenome includes not only the core genes shared by all varieties but also the unique genes found in individual strains, offering a comprehensive map of genetic diversity in Asian rice.
• This project is comparable to the Human Genome Project (2003) in its goal to map genome-wide variations, but it is focused on rice, which is a staple food for nearly two-thirds of the world population.
• India, a major rice producer, recorded a record production of 220 million tonnes in 2024-25 over 51,000 hectares, with an average yield of 4.2 tonnes/hectare.
• The new pangenome database enables the development of advanced rice cultivars with enhanced traits, such as disease tolerance and resilience to climate shocks.

Key Findings

• Researchers used high-fidelity sequencing (PacBio HiFi) and advanced computational tools to assemble 87 billion base pairs of novel genetic sequences, which were absent from the earlier reference genome of Oryza sativa ssp. japonica.
• A total of 69,531 genes were identified, out of which:
  • 28,907 are core genes common to all varieties,
  • 13,728 are specific to wild rice, and
  • About 20% of all genes were unique to wild rice species, offering potential for future improvements in rice breeding.
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) recently developed two genome-edited rice varieties – Samba Mahsuri and MTU 1010 – that show promise for higher yield and drought resistance, though they are not yet released for cultivation.

Threats

• Climate change is a significant threat to rice production in India. The country has seen an average temperature rise of 0.7°C since 1901, and 2024 was the hottest year recorded, with minimum temperatures 0.9°C above average.
• Rising temperatures also increase arsenic uptake in rice, posing risks to both health and crop yield stability

What was discovered?

• These mutations affect a cellular complex called the RNA exosome, which plays a critical role in RNA processing, surveillance, and degradation.
• This reveals the potential to use yeast as a model organism for studying human neurological disorders, particularly those related to RNA exosome dysfunction.

What are RNA Exosomopathies?

• RNA exosomopathies are disorders caused by mutations in genes coding for RNA exosome components.
• These disorders primarily lead to brain maldevelopment, affecting structures like the pons and cerebellum.
• A key example is Pontocerebellar Hypoplasia Type 1 (PCH1), which results in severe motor, cognitive, and developmental impairments in infants.

Role of the RNA Exosome

• The RNA exosome is a multi-protein complex discovered in yeast in 1997.
• It is responsible for:
  • Processing, surveillance, and degradation of different types of RNA molecules.
  • Maturation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – essential for building ribosomes.
  • Elimination of faulty messenger RNA (mRNA) and regulation of non-coding RNAs (ncRNA).

Experimental Findings (Study 1 – Journal RNA)

• Researchers introduced human disease mutations into corresponding yeast genes.
• Found defects in:
  • RNA surveillance
  • Ribosome production
  • Protein synthesis
• Each mutation had a distinct molecular signature, explaining the varied clinical symptoms in patients.

 Creation of a Humanised Yeast Model (Study 2 – Journal G3)

• Scientists replaced segments of yeast RNA exosomes with human or mouse genes.
• Of 9 core proteins, 6 were successfully replaced, with 3 supporting normal yeast growth.
• Introduced known brain-defect mutations into this model.
• Proved that mutations directly impair RNA exosome function and are not mediated through indirect processes.

Why Yeast?

• Yeast is a simple eukaryote, easy to genetically modify and culture.
• Offers a cost-effective and fast method for testing hypotheses and potential drug interventions.
• Using yeast models allows rapid screening of RNA exosome mutations and their functional consequences.

What Are Magnetars?

• Magnetars are a type of neutron star characterised by exceptionally strong magnetic fields, estimated to be a thousand times stronger than typical neutron stars. Occasionally, they emit intense bursts of energy in the form of flares.
• The discovery was based on data from a giant flare emitted by a magnetar in 2004, during which unusual gamma-ray emissions were recorded almost a day after the initial flare by NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
• The delayed emission was not consistent with standard flare afterglows. Instead, it displayed signatures of radioactive decay from neutron-rich isotopes, suggesting the presence of r-process nucleosynthesis.

What Is R-Process Nucleosynthesis?

• The r-process or rapid neutron-capture process is a series of nuclear reactions where atomic nuclei rapidly capture neutrons, forming heavy elements like gold, platinum, and uranium. It requires extreme energy environments and neutron-rich matter.
• Researchers estimated that approximately 9 septillion kg of r-process material was ejected at nearly light speed during the flare. This material likely underwent rapid neutron capture, resulting in the synthesis of heavy elements.
• This discovery suggests that magnetars could have contributed to the universe’s heavy element inventory much earlier than neutron star collisions, offering insights into the chemical evolution of galaxies.

About Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location: Situated in Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya, within the Eastern Himalayan Global Biodiversity Hotspot.
• Topography: Features undulating plains, low hills, and rugged terrain shaped by the Umtrew River and its tributaries (Umran, Umling, Umtasor).
• Main river: Umtrew River, forming the western boundary of the sanctuary.
• Fauna: Home to over 400 bird species, including the endangered Rufous-necked Hornbill, and mammals like the Clouded Leopard, Elephant, and Himalayan Black Bear.
• Flora: Dominant species include Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, and Gmelina arborea.
• Legal and Conservation Status: Established in 1981 as a protected sanctuary under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
  • Rated as the best-managed protected area in Northeast India in the 2021 Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) Report.

About National Technology Day

• National Technology Day is observed annually on 11th May to commemorate key milestones in India's technological advancement.
• Historical Milestones on 11th May 1998:
  • Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests under Operation Shakti, establishing India as a nuclear weapons state.
  • First test flight of the indigenously developed “Hansa-3” aircraft at Bengaluru.
  • Successful test firing of the Trishul missile, a short-range surface-to-air missile developed by DRDO.
• The day was officially declared by then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998, and since 1999, it has been celebrated as National Technology Day.
• Organising body: The event is organised by the Technology Development Board (TDB), a statutory body under DST, which promotes the commercialisation of indigenous technologies.

About YANTRA

• The word “YANTRA”, drawn from India’s ancient scientific and cultural traditions, signifies not just mechanical tools but also symbolic power representing:
  • Systems thinking
  • Synergistic innovation
  • Scalable technological solutions
• The term “Yugantar”, meaning epochal transformation, reflects India’s transition from technology adoption to global technology leadership, signalling a shift in India's innovation narrative.

About  National Scheme for Upgradation of Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and the establishment of five National Centres of Excellence (NCOEs) for Skilling:

• It will be implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with an outlay of Rs.60,000 crore (Central Share: Rs.30,000 crore, State Share: Rs.20,000 crore, and Industry Share: Rs.10,000 crore), with co-financing to the extent of 50% of the Central share by the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank,
• The scheme will focus on upgradation of 1,000 Government ITIs in hub and spoke arrangement with industry aligned revamped trades (courses) and Capacity Augmentation of five (5) National Skill Training Institutes (NSTIs), including setting up of five National Centres of Excellence for Skilling in these institutes.
• The Scheme aims to position existing ITIs as government-owned, industry-managed aspirational institutes of skills, in collaboration with State Governments and industry.
• Over a five-year period, 20 lakh youth will be skilled through courses that address the human capital needs of industries.
• The scheme will focus on ensuring alignment between local workforce supply and industry demand, thereby facilitating industries, including MSMEs, in accessing employment-ready workers.
• A need-based investment provision has been kept under the scheme, allowing flexibility in fund allocation based on the specific infrastructure, capacity, and trade-related requirements of each institution.
• A unique feature of this scheme is the introduction of an industry-led Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) model to oversee ITI upgradation.
  • This approach will ensure better industry participation, course alignment, and outcome-driven implementation.
• Under the scheme, infrastructure upgradation for improved Training of Trainers (ToT) facilities will be undertaken in five NSTIs, namely Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kanpur, and Ludhiana.
• Additionally, pre-service and in-service training will be provided to 50,000 trainers.

About Credit Guarantee Scheme for Startups (CGSS):

• The Government of India established the CGSS in 2022 for providing credit guarantees to loans extended by Scheduled Commercial Banks, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)-registered Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs).
• CGSS is aimed at providing credit guarantees up to a specified limit against loans extended by Member Institutions (MIs) to finance eligible borrowers, viz., Startups as defined in the Gazette Notification issued by Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) and amended from time to time.
• The National Credit Guarantee Trustee Company Limited (NCGTC) is the implementing agency of the Scheme.
• CGSS does not provide guarantee cover to DPIIT-recognised startups directly, but the Trustee (NCGTC), which in turn provides guarantee cover to Member Institutions (MIs) who provide loans to startups.
• The instruments of assistance would be in the form of venture debt, working capital, subordinated debt/mezzanine debt, debentures, optionally convertible debt and other fund-based as well as non-fund-based facilities, which have crystallised as debt obligations.
• The credit guarantee cover under the Scheme would be transaction-based and umbrella-based.
  • In transaction-based guarantee cover, the guarantee cover is obtained by the MIs on a single eligible borrower basis. It will promote lending by Banks/ NBFCs to eligible startups.
  • The umbrella-based guarantee cover will provide guarantee to Venture Debt Funds (VDF) registered under AIF regulations of SEBI.
• Recent Changes:
  • The revised framework has enhanced guarantee coverage, increasing the maximum limit from ₹10 crore to ₹20 crore per eligible borrower.
  • The extent of guarantee has also been increased. For loans up to ₹10 crore, the guarantee will now cover 85 percent of the amount in default, while for loans above ₹10 crore, the coverage will be 75 percent.
  • Further, the Annual Guarantee Fee (AGF) for startups in 27 Champion Sectors has been reduced to 1 percent p.a. from 2 percent p.a.

About Gomti River:

• It is a tributary of the Ganges (Ganga) River, flowing entirely through the state of Uttar Pradesh.
• The river is also known by the names Gumti or Gomati.
• The Gomti River is unique in that it is both rain- and groundwater-fed; the other major tributaries of the Ganga in this region are snow-fed rivers originating in the Himalayas.
• Course:
  • It originates from the Gomat Taal, otherwise called Fulhaar Jheel, which is located near the Madho Tanda in the Pilibhit district in Uttar Pradesh.
  • The river drains the area between the rivers Ramganga and Sharda.
  • After flowing southwards through the districts of Lucknow, Barabhanki, Sultanpur, Faizabad, and Jaunpur, it joins with the River Ganga near Saidpur.
• The river extends to about 900 km.
• It drains a basin of about 7,240 square miles (18,750 square km).
• Major tributaries of the Gomti include the Sai River, Chowka River, Kathina River, and Saryu River.
• Major cities situated on the banks of the River Gomti are Sultanpur, Lucknow, Jaunpur, and Lakhimpur Kheri.

About LICONN  Technology:

• Light-microscopy-based Connectomics (LICONN) is a new method to map the brain’s complex neural networks at the nanoscale while simultaneously identifying specific molecules within those connections.
• It was developed at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA).
• LICONN combines conventional light microscopy technology with the properties of hydrogel and experimental techniques, artificial intelligence, and analytical methods.
• It is the first technology beyond electron microscopy (EM) that is capable of reconstructing brain tissue with all the synaptic connections between neurons.
• Until now, researchers studying brain connectivity faced a challenging trade-off: they could either see the detailed physical structure of neural connections using electron microscopy (EM) or identify specific molecules using light microscopy—but not both simultaneously at the resolution needed to trace individual connections.
• LICONN allows researchers to see structures in the brain that are smaller than what normal light microscopes can detect.
• They do this by soaking brain tissue in a special gel that expands it by about 16 times its original size, then use fluorescent stains to highlight different proteins and advanced computer programs, including AI, to identify and trace the shapes of neurons.

About Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project (TBMRP):

• The Tapti River (called Tapi in Maharashtra) originates in Madhya Pradesh’s Betul district and flows through parts of Maharashtra.
• TBMRP is a joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• It is the world’s largest groundwater recharge initiative.
• The project aims to channelise adequate water to northeastern Maharashtra, including Nagpur, for drinking purposes, and to southern Madhya Pradesh, particularly the Chhindwara district, for irrigation.
• The total water usage of the Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project will be 31.13 thousand million cubic feet (TMC), of which 11.76 TMC has been allocated to Madhya Pradesh and 19.36 TMC to Maharashtra.
• It will facilitate irrigation of 1,23,082 hectares of land in MP and 2,34,706 hectares in Maharashtra.
• Under the Project, four water structures are proposed:
  • Low diversion weir at Kharia Gutighat dam site: The weir is proposed at Khalwa tehsil of Khandwa district in MP and Amravati tehsil of Maharashtra on the border of both states with 8.31 TMC capacity.
  • Right bank canal phase I: A 221-km-long canal is proposed from the right bank of the proposed Kharia Gutighat weir, with 110 km in MP. The canal will irrigate over 55,000 hectares of area in MP.
  • Left bank canal phase I: A 135.64-km-long canal is proposed from the left bank of the proposed Kharia Gutighat weir, with 100.42 km in MP. It will irrigate over 44,000 hectares of area in MP.
  • Left bank canal phase II: Its length will be 123.97 km, which will irrigate over 80,000 hectares in Maharashtra.

Key Facts about New Zealand

• New Zealand is an island country located in the Southwestern Pacific Ocean, situated between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle.
• It comprises two major islands—the North Island and the South Island, separated by the Cook Strait, along with over 700 smaller islands.
• Geologically, New Zealand is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, making it prone to earthquakes and volcanic activity.
• The country features diverse relief, including the Canterbury Plains, a high central plateau in Central Otago, and active volcanoes such as Mount Ruapehu and White Island.
• The highest peak is Mount Cook (Aoraki), and the largest glacier is the Tasman Glacier.
• Lake Taupō is the largest natural lake in New Zealand and lies in a volcanic caldera, contributing to the country’s hydroelectric energy and tourism.

What is MADMAX?

• MADMAX stands for Magnetised Disk and Mirror Axion Experiment.
• It is a research initiative designed to detect dark matter: axions and dark photons.
• The detector consists of a stack of dielectric (sapphire) disks and a reflective mirror, forming a resonator system.

What are Dark Photons?

• Dark photons are hypothetical particles similar to photons (light particles) but with mass.
• They are proposed components of galactic dark matter halos.
• Under specific conditions, dark photons can convert into ordinary photons, with the frequency of conversion depending on the mass of the dark photon.

How does the MADMAX Detector Work?

• The core detection mechanism involves boosting the conversion of dark photons to microwave photons.
• This is achieved using a resonator composed of parallel dielectric disks that enhance conversion probabilities.
• A curved mirror focuses the resulting microwave signals into a horn antenna that connects to a microwave receiver.

Key Features of the MADMAX Setup

• Resonators larger than the wavelength of expected dark photon signals, enabling detection at higher frequencies (~20 GHz).
• Ability to tune resonance frequencies by adjusting disk positions, thereby expanding the mass range coverage.
• Signal identification relies on detecting a narrow peak in Fourier space that stands out from thermal noise.

Experimental Findings

• The first prototype run did not detect dark photon signals.
• However, the instrument functioned successfully, detecting signals with a sensitivity three orders of magnitude better than prior methods.
• This run covered a previously unexplored range of parameters in just one experiment.

About International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• The IMF is a specialised UN agency, established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference to ensure global monetary stability post the Great Depression.
• It promotes monetary cooperation, ensures financial stability, facilitates international trade, supports high employment, and works to reduce poverty.

Functions of the IMF

• Provides economic surveillance of member countries and policy advice.
• Offers financial assistance to countries facing balance-of-payments crises.
• Delivers technical assistance and capacity-building support for sound economic governance.
• IMF loans are usually conditional upon economic reforms to ensure fiscal discipline and long-term growth.

Membership and Voting Power

• The IMF has 190 member countries.
• Each member contributes a quota, based on its economic size and performance, which determines its voting power and access to funding.
• Voting is determined by a formula: 1 vote per 100,000 SDRs of quota + basic votes.
• SDRs (Special Drawing Rights) are an IMF-created international reserve asset, not a currency, but can be exchanged among members for freely usable currencies.

Organisational Structure

• The Board of Governors (usually finance ministers or central bank governors) is the highest decision-making body.
• Day-to-day affairs are run by a 24-member Executive Board.
• The Managing Director, often a European, is the Chair of the Executive Board and leads the IMF staff.
• The IMF is headquartered in Washington, D.C.

About Songar Drones

• Songar drones are armed unmanned aerial systems (UAS) developed by Turkey-based defence company Asisguard and are considered Turkey’s first indigenously developed armed drones.
• First launched in April 2019, these drones were officially inducted into the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) in February 2020 after completing successful trials.

Key Technical Features of Songar Drones

• The drone's rotor-to-rotor width is 140 cm, with a maximum take-off weight of 45 kg.
• It can perform operations for 35 minutes without payload, and has autonomous and manual flight control modes.
• Operational range is approximately 10 km, with a maximum altitude of 3,000 m above mean sea level and 300 m above ground level.
• Equipped with real-time video transmission and dual cameras – a pilot camera for navigation and a gun-mounted camera for targeting.
• Includes GPS and GLONASS-based navigation, with autonomous return-to-base function in case of communication loss.

Weapon Configurations and Variants

• There are five primary weaponised variants of Songar drones:
  • Songar 5.56×45 mm Assault Rifle – uses standard NATO rounds with a recoil-dampening mechanism.
  • Songar 2×40 mm Grenade Launcher – fires two grenades up to 400–450 metres.
  • Songar 6×40 mm Drum-type Grenade Launcher – fires six grenades in rapid succession.
  • Songar 3×81 mm Mortar Gripper – suited for launching mortar shells.
  • Songar 8×Tear/Smoke Grenade Launcher – delivers grenades via controlled free-fall, ideal for riot control or non-lethal missions.
• All variants are equipped with multi-layered safety protocols, requiring operator authorization before firing.

About Methane

• Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, responsible for about 30% of the global temperature rise since the Industrial Revolution. Its atmospheric concentration is now 5 times higher than in the preindustrial era and is rising faster than other greenhouse gases.
• The three major anthropogenic sources of methane emissions are agriculture, energy, and waste sectors.
• The energy sector — comprising oil, natural gas, coal, and bioenergy — accounts for over 35% of human-induced methane emissions.
• Within the energy sector:
  • Oil operations contributed around 45 Mt.
  • Natural gas operations released nearly 35 Mt.
  • Abandoned oil and gas wells emitted approximately 3 Mt.
  • Coal activities added more than 40 Mt, including 4 Mt from abandoned mines.
  • Bioenergy combustion, especially in developing countries, contributed 18 Mt, mostly from traditional biomass like wood, dung, and charcoal.
• Methane Characteristics:
  • It is a colourless, odourless and highly flammable gas, also known as marsh gas.
  • It has a short atmospheric lifespan of ~10 years but a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of ~80 times that of CO₂ over 20 years.
• Around 60% of atmospheric methane comes from human activities; the rest is from natural sources like wetlands and permafrost thawing, which release methane and CO₂ as temperatures rise.
• End-use equipment in energy systems also leaks methane — contributing an additional 2 Mt.
• Modern bioenergy sources contributed ~2 Mt of methane. These include biogas, biomethane, and biofuels derived from plant residues and waste.
• The IEA highlighted that ~70% of fossil fuel methane emissions can be mitigated using existing technologies, and in oil & gas, ~75% of emissions can be reduced by fixing leaks and plugging abandoned wells.
• China, followed by the USA, Russia, Iran, Turkmenistan, and India, are the top emitters from fossil fuel operations.

About Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme:

• Launched on June 29, 2020, PMFMPE is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries.
• It is designed to address the challenges faced by micro-enterprises and to tap the potential of groups and cooperatives to support the upgradation and formalization of these enterprises.
• Objectives: To build the capability of microenterprises to enable:
  • Increased access to credit by existing micro food processing entrepreneurs, FPOs, self-help groups, and co-operatives.
  • Integration with an organized supply chain by strengthening branding & marketing.
  • Support for the transition of existing 200,000 enterprises into a formal framework.
  • Increased access to common services like common processing facilities, laboratories, storage, packaging, marketing, and incubation services.
  • Strengthening of institutions, research, and training in the food processing sector; and
  • Increased access for enterprises to professional and technical support.
• Outlay:
  • The scheme envisages an outlay of ₹ 10,000 crores over a period of five years from 2020-21 to 2024-25.
  • The expenditure under the scheme would be shared in a 60:40 ratio between Central and State Governments, in a 90:10 ratio with the Northeastern and the Himalayan States, a 60:40 ratio with UTs with the legislature, and 100% by the Center for other UTs.
• Coverage:
  • Under the scheme, 2,00,000 micro food processing units will be directly assisted with credit-linked subsidies.
  • Adequate, supportive common infrastructure and institutional architecture will be supported to accelerate the growth of the sector.
• Benefits: The program has four broad components addressing the needs of the sector:
  • Support to individuals and groups of micro-enterprises.
  • Branding and Marketing support.
  • Support the strengthening of institutions.
  • Setting up a robust project management framework.
• Financial Support:
  • Support to Individual micro units:
    • Micro enterprises will get credit-linked subsidy @ 35% of the eligible project cost with a ceiling of Rs.10 lakh.
    • Beneficiary contribution will be a minimum 10% and balance from the loan.
    • On-site skill training & Handholding for DPR and technical upgradation.
  • Support to FPOs/SHGs/Cooperatives:
    • Seed capital will be given to SHGs (@Rs. 4 lakh per SHG) for loans to members for working capital and small tools.
    • Credit linked capital subsidy @35% subject to a maximum of Rs. 3 crore, to support FPOs, SHGs, Cooperatives, and any Government agency for setting up common infrastructure.
    • Grant up to 50% for Branding and Marketing to groups of FPOs/ SHGs/ Cooperatives or an SPV of micro food processing enterprises.
    • Skill training & Handholding support.
    • Credit linked capital subsidy
• The Eligible Borrowers for PMFMPE can be:
  • Farmer Producer Organization (FPO)
  • Self-Help Groups
  • Co-operatives
  • Existing Micro Food Processing Entrepreneurs
  • New Units, whether for individuals or groups, would only be supported for One District One Product (ODOP).

About Balochistan:

• Balochistan lies mostly in western Pakistan but also extends into southeastern Iran.
• It is the traditional homeland of the Baloch people, after whom it is named.
• Balochistan (also spelled Baluchistan) is bounded on the north by Afghanistan and on the south by the Arabian Sea.
• The Pakistani province named Balochistan covers an area of 347,190 sq.km.
  • It is the country’s largest but least populated province.
  • Its capital is Quetta.
• The Baloch and Pashtun people make up the two major and more distinct ethnic groups. The third major group consists of people who are of mixed ethnicity but mainly of Sindhi origin.
• Most of the people practice Islam, and most speak languages of the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian language family.
• The main languages are Balochi, Brahui, Pashto, and Sindhi.
• The largest towns and main trade centers in Balochistan are Quetta, in Pakistan, and Zahedan, in Iran.
• History:
  • It was ruled by the Greeks after being conquered by Alexander the Great in 330 bc.
  • Arabs held most of the region from the 7th to the 10th century.
  • The British annexed most of Balochistan to India in the late 19th century.
  • When British rule ended in India in 1947 and the colony was divided, much of Balochistan became part of Pakistan.

About Lupus:

• It is a disease that occurs when your body's immune system attacks your own tissues and organs (autoimmune disease).
• Inflammation caused by lupus can affect many different body systems — including your joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, brain, heart, and lungs.
• Causes: The cause of lupus is unknown. It’s thought to be the result of a mix of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors.
• Lupus is much more common among women than men.
• There are several kinds of lupus:
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the most common It can be mild or severe and can affect many parts of the body. SLE accounts for 70% of lupus cases.
  • Discoid lupus causes a red rash that doesn't go away.
  • Subacute cutaneous lupus causes sores after being out in the sun.
  • Drug-induced lupus is caused by certain medicines. It usually goes away when you stop taking the medicine.
  • Neonatal lupus, which is rare, affects newborns. It is probably caused by certain antibodies from the mother.
• Symptoms:
  • Lupus causes symptoms throughout your body, depending on which organs or systems it affects.
  • Everyone experiences a different combination and severity of symptoms.
  • The symptoms of lupus occur in times of flare-ups. Between flare-ups, people usually experience times of remission, when there are few or no symptoms.
  • The wide range of symptoms in the body includes joint pain, headache, rashes, fever, fatigue, mouth sores, confusion, swollen glands, and blood clots, among others.
• Treatment: There is no cure for lupus, but medicines and lifestyle changes can help control it.

About Manas National Park:

• It is located in the foothills of Himalayas in Assam.
• Sprawling in a large area of 950 sq.km, the national park shares a border with Bhutan's Royal Manas National Park.
• The Manas River, from which its name has been derived, flows through the west of the park and is the main river within it.
  • The river also acts as an international border between India and Bhutan.
  • Manas River is a major tributary of the Brahmaputra River and divides into two separate rivers, the Beki and Bholkaduba, as it reaches the plains.
• The park’s elevation ranges from 60 to 1,500 meters (200 to 4,900 feet) above sea level, contributing to its rich biodiversity.
• The area has the unique distinction of being a Natural World Heritage Site, a Tiger Reserve, an Elephant Reserve, a Biosphere Reserve, and an Important Bird Area.
• It is one of the first reserves included in the tiger reserve network under Project Tiger in 1973.
• It forms part of a large tiger conservation landscape which includes Buxa-Nameri-Pakke-Namdapha tiger reserves and protected areas of Bhutan and Myanmar.
• The park is inhabited by several indigenous communities, including the Bodo, who have a deep connection with the land and its wildlife.
• Flora:
  • In general, the vegetation comprises Sal (Shorea robusta), scrub forests, old plantations (in buffer areas), semi-evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, interspersed with grasslands and riparian vegetation (in core area).
  • The most presiding plant species found here are hollong trees. Some other prominent species available here are Amari, Dewa Sam, Himolu, Garjan, etc.
• Fauna: The Park is known for its rare and endangered endemic wildlife, such as the Hispid Hare, Pygmy Hog, Golden Langur, Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic Buffalo, etc.

About Pakal Dul Hydropower Project:

• It is a 1 GW run-of-the-river scheme hydroelectric project (HEP) under construction on the Marusudar River, a tributary of the Chenab River in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir.
• It comprises a 167 m-high concrete-face rockfill dam, a 157 m-long, 20.2 m-wide, and 49 m-high underground powerhouse, a 123.6 m-long, 16 m-wide, and 13.1 m-high transformer cabin, and a rockfill impervious core cofferdam.
• The underground powerhouse will be equipped with four 250 MW Francis turbine units operating at a net head of 397.3m.
• It is anticipated to produce around 3,330 million units of energy a year.
• It is being constructed by Chenab Valley Power Projects [P] Ltd. (CVPPL), a joint venture company of National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC Limited) and Jammu & Kashmir State Power Development Corporation Ltd (JKSPDC).
• JKSPDC holds a 49% stake in CVPPL while NHPC and PTC India hold 49% and 2%, respectively.
• During the first ten years of operation, the Union Territory of J&K will receive 12% free power from the project, in addition to waiving water usage charges. It will also have the first right to purchase the power allotted to NHPC and PTC.

Key Facts about Chile

• Location and Borders: Located in South America, Chile is a long, narrow country bordered by:
  • Peru and Bolivia to the North,
  • Argentina to the East,
  • Pacific Ocean to the West.
• The Argentina–Chile border is the longest in South America and the third-longest globally.
• Key Geographical Features:
  • Andes Mountains: The World's longest continental mountain range.
  • Atacama Desert: Driest non-polar desert in the world.
  • Loa River: Chile’s longest river (approx. 440 km).
  • Ojos del Salado: The World’s highest active volcano and 2nd highest peak in South America (6,880 m).
  • Frequent earthquakes and tsunamis due to Chile's location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• Economic Resources:
  • World’s largest copper producer.
  • Member of the “Lithium Triangle” (with Argentina and Bolivia), holding over 75% of global lithium reserves under salt flats.
  • Other resources include molybdenum, iron ore, timber, hydropower, and precious metals.

What is Coal Gasification?

• Coal gasification is a thermo-chemical process that converts coal into syngas, a synthetic gas composed mainly of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen (H₂), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), and Water Vapour (H₂O).
• Coal is reacted at high temperatures (1000–1400°C) with a controlled amount of oxygen and steam, producing syngas.

Process of Coal Gasification

• Preparation: Coal is finely crushed to increase surface area.
• Gasification reactor: The powdered coal is fed into a reactor with limited oxygen/air and steam.
• Chemical reactions: Coal breaks down into syngas components due to partial oxidation.
• Gas cleaning: Impurities like tar, sulfur, and dust are removed from raw syngas.

Ex-situ vs In-situ Gasification

About the Financial Incentive Scheme (Launched January 24, 2024)

• Total outlay: ₹8,500 crore.
• Target: Achieve 100 million tonnes of coal gasification by 2030.
• Aim: To efficiently utilise India’s domestic coal reserves for sustainable industrial development.
• It promotes both public and private sector participation for setting up coal gasification infrastructure.
• Aligned with India’s goal of a clean coal transition, energy security, and reduction of import dependency.

About Arnala

• ‘Arnala’ is the first of eight indigenously built Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Crafts (ASW SWCs) delivered to the Indian Navy
• It was designed and built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata, and constructed at M/s L&T Shipyard, Kattupalli, under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP).
• The warship was built according to the Indian Register of Shipping (IRS) classification rules, showcasing adherence to domestic naval architecture standards.
• The project reflects the successful collaboration between the public and private sectors in India’s defence manufacturing ecosystem, supporting strategic self-reliance.
• ‘Arnala’ is named after the historic Arnala Fort located off Vasai, Maharashtra, symbolising India’s rich maritime legacy and heritage.
• The vessel is 77 metres long and holds the distinction of being the largest Indian Naval warship powered by a Diesel Engine-Waterjet propulsion system.
• Primary roles of the ship include:
  • Underwater surveillance in coastal zones
  • Search and Rescue (SAR) operations
  • Low Intensity Maritime Operations (LIMO)
  • Coastal Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) operations
  • Advanced mine-laying capabilities.
• The induction of ASW SWCs like Arnala significantly enhances India’s shallow water anti-submarine warfare capacity, vital for maritime security in littoral zones.
• Over 80% of the ship’s components are sourced indigenously, marking a major step in the realization of ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ in defence manufacturing.

About the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF)

• The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) was established in 2000 by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to promote sustainable forest management and conservation
• The forum holds annual sessions at the UN Headquarters, alternating between technical discussions (odd years) and policy-level dialogues (even years).
• UNFF has universal membership, including all UN Member States and specialised forest-related agencies.
• India is a founding member of the UNFF, and continues to play a proactive role in shaping forest-related global policy.
• The 19th UNFF Session Declaration aimed to secure high-level political commitment to forest protection, with actionable steps to achieve the goals of the UN Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF).

India at United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF20)

• The Indian delegation highlighted the country’s achievements in forest conservation and sustainable forest management, reaffirming its commitment to the Voluntary National Contributions (VNCs) under the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF) 2017–2030.
• India reported a steady increase in forest and tree cover, which now stands at 17% of its geographical area, as per the latest India State of Forest Report.
• Among the key national initiatives mentioned were:
  • Aravalli Green Wall project for land restoration,
  • A 86% increase in mangrove cover over the past decade,
  • Afforestation of over 1.55 lakh hectares under the Green India Mission, and
  • Planting of 4 billion seedlings under the Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam (Plant4Mother) campaign.
• A major highlight was India’s invitation to all UN Member States to join the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), a global platform initiated by India to protect the seven big cat species through collaborative research, knowledge exchange, and capacity-building.
• These studies focused on quantifying ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water provisioning, and biodiversity conservation, using tools such as the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA).

About Chrysopoeia

• The concept of turning lead into gold, known as chrysopoeia, was a medieval alchemist’s dream, based on the similar density of the two metals, but modern science clarified that they are distinct chemical elements and chemical methods cannot achieve such a transformation.

Mechanism of Transmutation

• Gold nuclei (Au-203) are created when three protons and two neutrons are ejected from lead nuclei (Pb-208) during ultra-peripheral collisions in the LHC, where nuclei pass close without directly colliding.
• These near-miss collisions generate strong electromagnetic fields due to the 82 protons in each lead nucleus moving at 999993% of the speed of light, compressing the field into a short-lived photon pulse.
• The process, called electromagnetic dissociation, triggers internal nuclear oscillations, causing the emission of protons and neutrons.

Role of ALICE Detector and ZDC

• The ALICE detector utilises Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDCs) to identify photon–nucleus interactions and detect the ejection of zero, one, two, or three protons, linked to the formation of lead, thallium, mercury, and gold, respectively.
• This is the first systematic experimental detection of gold creation at the LHC, thanks to ALICE’s high precision in recording both high-energy and rare low-particle

About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

• The LHC is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator, built by CERN to study fundamental particles and test predictions of the Standard Model.
• It consists of a 27-kilometre circular ring with superconducting magnets and accelerating structures, located on the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva.
• Inside, two beams of hadrons (usually protons or lead nuclei) are accelerated to 999999% the speed of light in opposite directions, then made to collide at four detector sites: ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, and LHCb.

About CERN

• CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) was established in 1954 as Europe’s first joint scientific venture after WWII.
• It is headquartered near Geneva, with 23 member states and 10 associate members, including India as an Associate Member.
• CERN is dedicated to collaborative high-energy particle physics research, and houses the LHC and its associated detectors.

About Competition Commission of India (Determination of Cost of Production) Regulations, 2025:

• It was notified by the Competition Commission of India (CCI).
• It is aimed at effectively assessing alleged predatory pricing and deep discounting practices in the quick commerce and e-commerce sectors.
  • Predatory pricing refers to a strategy where a dominant company deliberately lowers its prices below the cost of production to drive competitors out of the market.
  • Once rival firms are weakened or eliminated, the company typically raises prices to recoup its losses and consolidate market control.
  • This practice is specifically prohibited under Section 4(2)(a)(ii) of the Competition Act, 2002, when used to unfairly gain or maintain dominance.
• To strengthen oversight of such behavior, CCI (Determination of Cost of Production) Regulations, 2025, implements updated cost assessment standards.
• These revised benchmarks are designed to reflect modern economic thinking, judicial rulings, and international best practices in competition law.
• According to the latest regulations, the “cost of a good or service would be assumed to be its average variable cost”, which is the total variable cost divided by total output during a particular period.
  • Here, the total variable cost refers to the total cost (including everything that goes into the production of that good or service) minus the fixed cost and fixed overheads attributable to the product.
• One of the key changes in the new regulations is the shift from sector-specific benchmarks to a case-by-case assessment model that is flexible and adaptable to various industries, including the digital economy.
• Therefore, rather than prescribing sector-specific metrics, the framework allows for case-by-case assessment, enabling the Commission to consider the unique features and evolving dynamics of digital markets when evaluating alleged predatory conduct.
• These new regulations repeal the 2009 Cost Regulations and reflect evolving global practices in competition law.

About Thalassaemia:

• Thalassemia (thal-uh-SEE-me-uh) is an inherited blood disorder.
• Thalassemia causes the body to have less of the protein hemoglobin than usual.
• Hemoglobin is present in red blood cells and allows the red blood cells to carry oxygen.
• Not having enough hemoglobin or red blood cells can lead to a condition called anemia. That can make you feel tired and weak.
• Thalassaemia is caused by inheriting a gene mutation (change in the normal DNA) from one or both parents.
• There are different types of thalassaemia. The type someone has depends on which gene mutation they inherit.
• Symptoms: Thalassemia can cause mild or severe anemia and other complications over time (such as iron overload). Symptoms of anemia include:
  • Trouble breathing.
  • Feeling cold.
  • Pale skin
  • dizziness
  • fatigue
• Treatments:
• • Blood transfusions – regular blood transfusions treat and prevent anaemia; in severe cases these are needed around once a month.
  • Chelation therapy – treatment with medicine to remove the excess iron from the body that builds up as a result of having regular blood transfusions
  • The only possible cure for thalassaemia is a stem cell or bone marrow transplant, but this is not done very often because of the risks involved.

About Indo-Pacific Logistics Network (IPLN):

• The Quad Indo-Pacific Logistics Network pilot project was launched during the fourth Quad Leaders’ Summit in September 2024.
• IPLN is an initiative that enables Quad partners to leverage shared logistics capabilities in the Indo-Pacific to support civilian response to natural disasters more rapidly and efficiently across the region.
• This effort will complement existing efforts with Indo-Pacific partners.
• Together with the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness, the IPLN reflects the Quad’s commitment to ensuring a free and open Indo-Pacific and highlights the value of strengthening practical cooperation to address regional challenges.

What is Quad?

• The Quad, officially the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, is a group of four countries: the United States, Australia, India, and Japan.
• Genesis:
  • Quad came together during the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean region to coordinate response and assistance to countries in the region.
  • The first meeting of Quad officials took place on the sidelines of the ASEAN Regional Forum summit in the Philippines in May 2007.
  • After a gap of 10 years, Quad officials met in Manila in November 2017 on the margins of the East Asia Summit for consultations on connectivity issues; maritime security and counter-terrorism; shared principles for a Free and Open Indo-Pacific; and proliferation threats in Asia.
• Since 2021, the leaders of the four nations have met annually to drive the Quad’s positive contributions across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.
• The core objective of the Quad is to secure a rules-based global order, freedom of navigation, and a liberal trading system.
• The coalition also aims to offer alternative debt financing for nations in the Indo-Pacific region.
• It is basically seen as a strategic grouping to reduce Chinese domination.

About HAROP Drones:

• The Harop drone, developed by the MBT Missiles Division of Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), belongs to a class of weapons known as loitering munition
  • These drones are designed to hover in a designated area for up to nine hours, identify hostile targets, and destroy them by crashing into them with a built-in explosive payload.
  • Unlike conventional UAVs, which return after surveillance missions, loitering munitions serve a dual purpose: reconnaissance and attack.
• The Harop is equipped with an electro-optical (EO) or infrared (IR) seeker to detect, track, and engage static or mobile threats, including radar systems, missile launchers, and command posts.
• Capable of autonomous operation with human oversight, the Harop offers a man-in-the-loop control mode, allowing the operator to make final decisions before impact.
• It is also equipped with abort capability, allowing for mission cancellation mid-flight to avoid collateral damage.
• Other notable features include:
  • A wingspan of 3 meters and a length of 2.5 meters.
  • Maximum speed of 417 km/h.
  • Operational range of 200 km.
  • Flight endurance exceeding six hours.
  • Service ceiling of approximately 15,000 feet.
  • A 16 kg high-explosive warhead.
• Circular Error Probable (CEP) of under one meter, making it highly accurate.
• This combination of attributes allows the Harop to loiter over hostile areas, strike from any angle—including shallow or steep dives — and perform in GPS-denied environments due to its resistance to satellite jamming (GNSS).
• India has been a known operator of the Harop drone for over a decade.

About INS Vikrant:

• It is India’s first indigenously designed and manufactured aircraft carrier.
• The ship has been designed in-house by the Indian Navy’s Warship Design Bureau and constructed by M/s Cochin Shipyard Limited.
• It was commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2022.
• It has an overall indigenous content of 76%.
• It strengthens the country’s standing as a ‘Blue Water Navy’—a maritime force with global reach and capability to operate over deep seas.
• With it, India also joined the elite group of nations–the US, Russia, France, the UK, and China–who are capable of designing and constructing aircraft carriers.
• Features:
  • With a length of 262 metres and a width of 62 metres, the massive aircraft carrier boasts 14 decks, making it as tall as a 14-storey building.
  • It can house over 1,500 personnel.
  • Its full-load displacement is 43,000 tonnes.
  • The ship is powered by four Gas Turbines totaling 88 MW of power and has a maximum speed of 28 knots.
  • Endurance: 8,600 miles (13,890 kilometres)
  • It is capable of functioning independently for up to 45 days at sea.
  • It is capable of operating an air wing consisting of 30 aircraft comprising MIG-29K fighter jets, Kamov-31, MH-60R multi-role helicopters, in addition to indigenously manufactured Advanced Light Helicopters (ALH) and Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Navy).
  • Using a novel aircraft-operation mode known as STOBAR (Short Take-Off but Arrested Landing), INS Vikrant is equipped with a ski- jump for launching aircraft and a set of 'arrester wires' for their recovery onboard.