Why in news?

The Opposition has moved a no-confidence motion against Om Birla, the Lok Sabha Speaker. Parliamentary sources said the motion will now be examined and processed as per established rules.

The move follows criticism from the Congress and other parties, who accused the Speaker of not permitting the Leader of Opposition to quote from or discuss former Army Chief M M Naravane’s unpublished memoir.

The Opposition also objected to the Speaker’s claim that PM Modi could have been attacked inside the House, calling it unwarranted and contentious.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Removal of the Lok Sabha Speaker: What the Constitution Allows?
• When Does the Lok Sabha Speaker or Deputy Speaker Vacate Office?
• Procedure to Remove the Lok Sabha Speaker or Deputy Speaker
• Past Precedents of No-Confidence Motions Against Lok Sabha Speakers
• Guidelines Governing a No-Confidence Motion Against the Speaker
• Speaker’s Role During Consideration of Removal Motion

Removal of the Lok Sabha Speaker: What the Constitution Allows

• The Lok Sabha Speaker (or Deputy Speaker) can be removed from office, but only through a strict constitutional process.
• Under Article 94(c) of the Constitution, removal is possible by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the Lok Sabha.
• The provision applies only to the Lok Sabha, not the Rajya Sabha, and the procedural requirements are stringent, reflecting the high threshold set for removing the presiding officer of the House.

When Does the Lok Sabha Speaker or Deputy Speaker Vacate Office?

• Article 94 of the Constitution lays down the conditions under which the Speaker or Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha vacates office:
  • Cessation of membership (Article 94(a)): They automatically vacate office if they cease to be a member of the Lok Sabha.
  • Resignation (Article 94(b)): They may resign at any time by submitting a written resignation.
  • Removal by resolution (Article 94(c)): They can be removed through a Lok Sabha resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the House.
• These provisions ensure both stability and accountability of the presiding officers.

Procedure to Remove the Lok Sabha Speaker or Deputy Speaker

• A member seeking removal must submit a written notice to the Secretary-General of the Lok Sabha.
• The notice may be jointly signed by two or more members, but the resolution cannot be moved unless at least 14 days’ notice is given.
• After receipt, a motion for leave to move the resolution is listed in the List of Business in the members’ names.
• The date fixed must be any day after the 14-day notice period, following which the House may consider the motion as per rules.

Past Precedents of No-Confidence Motions Against Lok Sabha Speakers

• No-confidence motions have been moved against the Lok Sabha Speaker on three occasions—in 1954, 1966, and 1987.
• For such a motion to proceed, it must be supported by at least two Members of Parliament, and 50 members must stand in support, fulfilling the House’s quorum.
• The procedure is governed by Rules 200–203 of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
• Historically:
  • 1954: G V Mavalankar, the first Speaker, faced a motion
  • 1966: Motion against Hukam Singh
  • 1987: Motion against Balram Jakhar
• In all three cases, the motions failed, and none of the Speakers were removed from office.

Guidelines Governing a No-Confidence Motion Against the Speaker

• Under Rule 200A of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, a no-confidence motion against the Speaker must meet strict content and conduct requirements.
• The resolution must be specific in its charges, clearly and precisely worded, and free of arguments, inferences, ironic expressions, imputations, or defamatory statements.
• Additionally, once the motion is admitted for discussion, the Member(s) who submitted it are not permitted to make a speech, underscoring the procedural rigor governing such motions.

What Follows If a No-Confidence Motion Is Admitted?

• If a no-confidence motion is admitted, members supporting it must rise in their places.
• If at least 50 members stand, the presiding officer declares that leave is granted and schedules the motion for a day within 10 days.
  • If fewer than 50 members rise in support, the presiding officer declares that the member “has not the leave of the House”, and the motion does not proceed further.
  • Additionally, any resolution for the removal of the Speaker or Deputy Speaker submitted without the required notice is not taken up, ending the process at the preliminary stage.
• On the appointed day, the resolution is listed in the business of the House and taken up for discussion.
• The mover(s) may be allowed to speak for up to 15 minutes, subject to the presiding officer’s permission. The debate must be strictly confined to the charges stated in the resolution.

Speaker’s Role During Consideration of Removal Motion

• While a removal motion is under discussion, the Speaker continues in office and, as a Member of the Lok Sabha, retains the right to participate and speak in the proceedings.
• The Speaker is entitled to vote in the first instance on the resolution or related matters, but cannot exercise a casting vote in the event of a tie.

Why in news?

Earlier this month, the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art (NMAA) announced it will return three historic bronze sculptures to the Government of India, acknowledging they were illegally removed from temple settings.

The artefacts include: Shiva Nataraja (Chola period, ca. 990); Somaskanda (Chola period, 12th century); Saint Sundarar with Paravai (Vijayanagar period, 16th century).

The decision aligns with a global push for restitution of looted or illicitly trafficked cultural property to Asian countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. As part of this broader effort, the United States returned 297 Indian antiquities in 2024 alone.

Of the three bronzes, two will be physically repatriated to India, while the Shiva Nataraja will remain at the Smithsonian on a long-term loan. The return follows detailed provenance research that traced their unlawful removal, underscoring growing institutional accountability in global museum practices.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Three Bronzes: Sacred Origins and Iconography
• How the Three Bronzes Entered the Smithsonian’s Collection?
• Why the Smithsonian Is Returning the Bronzes?
• What Restitution Means for India?

The Three Bronzes: Sacred Origins and Iconography

• All three sculptures were sacred processional bronzes, traditionally carried during temple rituals, reflecting the refined bronze-casting traditions of South India.
• These were not decorative objects but living icons central to worship and ceremonial life.
• Shiva Nataraja: Lord of the Dance
  • The Shiva Nataraja bronze originated from the Sri Bhava Aushadesvara Temple in Tamil Nadu’s undivided Thanjavur district.
  • It portrays Shiva as “Lord of the Dance”, performing the ananda tandava (dance of bliss), symbolising cosmic creation, preservation, and destruction.
• Somaskanda: The Divine Family
  • The Somaskanda bronze traces its provenance to the Visvanatha Temple in Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu.
  • It depicts:
    • Shiva seated with Parvati (Uma)
    • Their son Skanda, who may sit between or dance around them
  • Notably, the NMAA sculpture is missing Skanda.
  • According to experts, Skanda was often cast separately and was typically the first figure to be lost or separated.
    • Archival photographs show Skanda was already missing by 1959.
  • Crucially, provenance research revealed that buried or damaged bronzes could later be reinstalled in temples, challenging earlier scholarly assumptions that burial meant permanent removal from ritual use.
• Saint Sundarar with Paravai: Devotion in Bronze
  • The third sculpture depicts Saint Sundarar and his wife Paravai, originally from a Shiva temple in Veerasolapuram village, Tamil Nadu.
  • The couple were influential Shaivite saints, credited with spreading Shiva worship in eighth-century southern India, and are deeply revered in Tamil religious tradition.
• Living Icons, Not Museum Objects
  • According to the NMAA, such images were:
    • Housed in dedicated shrines for most of the year
    • Once annually subjected to elaborate ritual bathing (abhisheka) using water, milk, yogurt, honey, sandalwood paste, and sacred ash
    • Then dressed in ceremonial robes

How the Three Bronzes Entered the Smithsonian’s Collection?

• The three bronzes had been part of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art (NMAA) collections for decades.
• They came under scrutiny during a systematic provenance review, which revealed gaps and inconsistencies in their documentation, according to the museum’s provenance team.
• The bronzes were acquired during a period when museum collecting standards were less stringent.
• Today, NMAA requires documentary proof of legal export, assessed against the UNESCO 1970 Convention, alongside export permits, seller consent, and a complete ownership trail, factoring in colonial and geopolitical contexts.
• A 2023 collaboration with the French Institute of Pondicherry photo archives confirmed that the bronzes were photographed in situ in Tamil Nadu temples between 1956 and 1959.
• The Archaeological Survey of India subsequently reviewed the findings and confirmed the sculptures were removed in violation of Indian law.
• While the exact circumstances of removal remain unclear, the museum established that the bronzes appeared in US markets or collections after the 1950s and passed through dealers linked to illicit antiquities.
• There is no evidence of lawful export from India.

Why the Smithsonian Is Returning the Bronzes?

• The Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art (NMAA) stated that the decision reflects its commitment to responsible stewardship of cultural heritage and greater transparency.
• NMAA began its restitution efforts in 2002, making it one of the earlier US museums to address issues of illicitly acquired cultural property.
• The institution acknowledges that many artefacts were transferred over the past two centuries without the consent of local communities.

What Restitution Means for India

• Restoring Legal and Cultural Ownership - Restitution ensures that India regains legal title over artefacts that rightfully belong to it. While ownership returns to the Government of India, objects may remain on long-term loan, allowing them to be displayed internationally while acknowledging their true origin.
• Ethics and International Goodwill - The provenance research and return process reflect ethical museum practice and foster diplomatic goodwill. Restitution signals recognition of historical wrongs and builds trust between source nations and global institutions.
• Opportunities for Cultural Collaboration - Repatriation can open doors to long-term cultural partnerships.
  • For example, after returning three sculptures to Cambodia—one remaining on loan—the museum collaborated on a five-year exhibition project in 2023.
  • Such arrangements allow source countries to showcase their heritage globally through structured cooperation.
• Expanding Global Cultural Presence
  • For India, restitution does not necessarily mean withdrawal from global spaces. Instead, it can:
    • Strengthen India’s cultural diplomacy
    • Promote curated international exhibitions
    • Ensure wider global engagement with Indian heritage

Context:

• An air force’s combat effectiveness rests on advanced weapon systems, trained personnel, and a reliable supply chain working in sync.
• The Indian Air Force operates a mixed fleet of Russian, Western, and indigenous fighters, with the Tejas adding to the portfolio.
• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) handles repair and overhaul for all fighters, making its role critical—but its overloaded order book, government work culture, and delivery/quality concerns have drawn scrutiny, including from the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
• Against this backdrop, reports that the development contract for five prototypes of the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) may be awarded to a private player—excluding HAL—aiming to create a second aircraft manufacturer are broadly welcome.
• However, the shift raises serious professional and execution risks that require careful consideration as decisions are finalised, to ensure timelines, quality, and integration with the IAF’s operational needs.

The Complexities of Private Participation in Fighter Aircraft Development

• Private Players as First-Time Developers
  • One key concern is that the three shortlisted private entities, despite being major industrial players, would effectively be first-time developers of a fighter aircraft.
  • The technical and organisational demands of designing, building, and testing a fifth-generation fighter prototype are far greater than those involved in producing helicopters, ships, or aerospace components.
• Historical Precedent: HAL’s Integrated Model
  • Historically, India’s fighter development followed an integrated, single-agency model. Aircraft like the HF-24 Marut were:
    • Designed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)’s Aircraft Design Bureau
    • Built, tested, upgraded, and weapon-integrated within the same organisation
    • Supported through series production and lifetime spares by HAL
  • Similar end-to-end models applied to trainer aircraft such as the HT-2 and HJT-16.
• Tejas: A Hybrid Development Structure
  • The Tejas programme marked a shift to a hybrid model:
    • Design and development led by the Defence Research and Development Organisation’s Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA)
    • Series production and lifetime support handled by HAL
  • This split already introduced coordination challenges between design and manufacturing.
• Implication for AMCA
  • Moving AMCA prototype development entirely to private players represents a further departure from past practice.
  • The absence of prior fighter-development experience and the fragmentation of design, testing, production, and long-term support raise questions about execution risk, timelines, and system integration.

Singular Control and Execution Challenges in the AMCA Programme

• Ownership and Accountability Gaps
  • In earlier programmes, both Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) functioned under the government, ensuring singular control by the Ministry of Defence.
  • In the AMCA model, with ADA as designer and a private firm as executor, questions arise over project ownership, accountability, and authority during prototype testing and eventual production.
• Infrastructure Concentration in Bengaluru
  • Over eight decades, HAL has built extensive infrastructure—tools, rigs, hangars, and production facilities—centred in Bengaluru.
  • The IAF has been deeply embedded in this ecosystem, contributing test aircrew and operational feedback through its Aircraft and Systems Testing Establishment, co-located with HAL.
  • For Tejas, a dedicated National Flight Test Centre was created at ADA, alongside nearby DRDO labs specialising in avionics and electronic warfare—all within a tight geographic cluster.
  • Replicating this ecosystem elsewhere would require huge capital, land acquisition, and time, raising doubts about feasibility for a private AMCA developer.
• Design–Manufacturing Integration Risks
  • Aircraft development globally relies on close fusion between designers and production engineers—from design boards to flight testing and upgrades.
  • As prototypes fly, manufacturing lines are simultaneously readied so production can begin immediately after certification.
  • Expecting a private entity to simultaneously test prototypes and build a fifth-generation manufacturing ecosystem—without an assured production order and with a contract limited to five prototypes—poses significant financial and execution risks.
• Test Aircrew Bottlenecks
  • Testing a futuristic fighter requires highly trained test pilots and engineers. India has only one test pilots school, with limited throughput.
  • A private AMCA developer would need multiple trained test aircrew from the outset, creating a critical bottleneck in manpower.
• A Pragmatic National Approach
  • Given that ADA, the National Flight Test Centre, and IAF test units are all based at HAL Airport, Bengaluru, it would be logical for a private AMCA developer to co-locate within this ecosystem.
  • An out-of-the-box proposal is to co-opt parts of HAL’s public-funded real estate and facilities—including hangars and testing infrastructure—for the private entity.

The Issue of Location: Where AMCA Should Be Built

• For a strategic programme like the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), the location of the production facility is critical.
• Past decisions—such as placing the C-295 aircraft factory in Vadodara, Gujarat, close to international borders—should not be repeated for frontline combat aircraft.
• AMCA production should be located deep in the hinterland, with strong connectivity and proximity to HAL’s Bengaluru airfield, India’s aviation hub.
• Co-location would enhance security, testing efficiency, infrastructure sharing, and coordination with existing design, flight-test, and manufacturing ecosystems essential for a fifth-generation fighter programme.

Why in News?

• The Union Government has notified amendments to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.
• It will strengthen regulation of AI-generated (synthetic) content and drastically reduce takedown timelines for unlawful material.
• The amendments (effective February 20, 2026) aim to curb the spread of non-consensual deepfakes, intimate imagery, and unlawful content, while reinforcing platform accountability under the IT Act, 2000.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Key Amendments at a Glance
• Safe Harbour and Intermediary Liability
• Administrative Changes
• Trigger Events - The Global Deepfake Crisis
• Governance and Constitutional Dimensions
• Key Challenges
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Key Amendments at a Glance:

• Sharp reduction in removal timelines:
  • For example,
    • For Court/Government-declared illegal content takedown timeline reduced to 3 hours (from earlier 24–36 hours).
    • Similarly, for non-consensual intimate imagery/deepfakes it is 2 hours (earlier 24 hours), and for other unlawful content from 36 hours to 3 hours.
  • Rationale: Earlier timelines were seen as ineffective in preventing virality. The government argues tech companies possess sufficient technical capacity for faster removal.
  • Concerns: Determining “illegality” within 2–3 hours is operationally difficult. Risk of over-censorship and precautionary takedowns. Increased compliance burden for intermediaries.
• Mandatory Labelling of AI-generated content:
  • Legal definition of “Synthetically Generated Information (SGI)”: Audio, visual or audio-visual content artificially created, generated, modified, or altered using a computer resource in a way that makes it appear real or indistinguishable from authentic events or persons.
  • Important features:
    • AI-generated imagery must be labelled “prominently.”
    • The earlier proposal requiring 10% of image space to carry the label has been diluted.
    • Platforms must seek user disclosure for AI-generated content, proactively label content if disclosure is absent, and remove non-consensual deepfakes.
  • Exclusions: Routine editing and quality-enhancing tools (e.g., smartphone touch-ups) are excluded — narrowing the scope from the draft October 2025 version.

Safe Harbour and Intermediary Liability:

• What is Safe Harbour? Under Section 79 of the IT Act, 2000, intermediaries are protected from liability for user-generated content, provided they exercise “due diligence.”
• Amendment impact:
  • If an intermediary knowingly permits, promotes, or fails to act against unlawful synthetic content, it may be deemed to have failed due diligence.
  • This may result in loss of safe harbour protection, significantly increasing regulatory pressure on platforms.

Administrative Changes:

• The amendment partially rolls back an earlier rule that limited States to appointing only one officer for issuing takedown orders.
• Now, States can designate multiple authorised officers, addressing administrative needs of populous States.

Trigger Events - The Global Deepfake Crisis:

• The urgency follows global controversies, including AI platforms generating non-consensual intimate images of women.
• Such incidents raise privacy concerns, gender dignity issues, pose threats to democratic discourse, and misrepresents real-world events.
• This places the reform within a broader international debate on AI governance and platform accountability.

Governance and Constitutional Dimensions:

• Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of Speech: Overbroad or rushed takedowns may chill legitimate expression. Short timelines increase risk of defensive over-removal.
• Article 21 – Right to Privacy and Dignity: Faster removal of non-consensual deepfakes strengthens protection of individual dignity.
• Federal implications: Allowing multiple State officers enhances decentralised enforcement.

Key Challenges:

• Determining illegality within 2–3 hours: Legal ambiguity, law enforcement communications may lack clarity.
• Risk of over-censorship: Platforms may make mistakes on the side of removal - could undermine free speech and digital innovation.
• Compliance burden on Big Tech: Real-time moderation requires high-end AI tools and human review. Smaller platforms may struggle disproportionately.
• Verification mechanisms: Ensuring authenticity of user declarations. Deploying “reasonable technical measures” without privacy violations.

Way Forward:

• Clearer illegality standards: Develop structured guidance for platforms, and standardised digital takedown protocols.
• Independent oversight mechanism: Appellate or review authority to check arbitrary takedowns.
• Strengthening AI detection tools: Promote indigenous AI detection systems under India’s AI mission.
• Harmonisation with Digital Personal Data Protection Act: Ensure consistency in privacy and consent standards.
• Capacity building for States: Training authorised officers in cyber law and AI governance.

Conclusion:

• India’s amended IT Rules reflect a decisive shift toward proactive regulation of AI-driven misinformation and digital harm.
• By these amendments, the government seeks to protect privacy, dignity, and public order in an era of rapidly advancing generative AI.
• However, the reform also raises critical concerns. So, the long-term success of this framework will depend on calibrated enforcement, technological readiness, and institutional safeguards against overreach.

Why in the News?

• India’s aviation sector is under scrutiny following repeated operational disruptions, safety incidents, and declining service reliability among major airlines.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Aviation Sector (Overview, Disruptions & Safety Concerns, Pilot Shortage, Regulatory Capacity & Gaps, Challenges, etc.)

Overview of India’s Aviation Sector

• India has emerged as the world’s third-largest domestic aviation market, operating over 840 aircraft and carrying more than 350 million passengers annually.
• Rapid growth in air travel demand has been driven by rising incomes, regional connectivity initiatives, and fleet expansion by private carriers.
• However, this expansion has increasingly exposed structural weaknesses related to manpower, regulation, and market concentration.
• While the sector contributes significantly to economic integration and mobility, its current growth trajectory appears overstretched, raising concerns about sustainability, safety, and passenger welfare.

Operational Disruptions and Safety Concerns

• The past year witnessed multiple operational failures, including mass flight cancellations, prolonged delays, and safety-related incidents.
• A major disruption in December involving IndiGo acted as a failed “stress test” for the system, revealing vulnerabilities that go beyond a single airline.
• These incidents were not isolated but indicative of system-wide constraints, with airlines operating close to their maximum capacity.
• The rising frequency of safety notices issued by the aviation regulator points to deeper compliance and oversight challenges.

Pilot Shortage and Flight Duty Time Constraints

• One of the most critical structural challenges is the acute shortage of trained pilots. India’s aviation expansion has outpaced its training capacity.
• New Flight Duty Time Limitation (FDTL) norms, which mandate longer rest periods and reduced night operations, have made existing airline schedules difficult to sustain.
• Major airlines operate with a pilot-to-aircraft ratio significantly below global benchmarks, increasing fatigue risks and operational fragility.
• While India may require 25,000-30,000 pilots over the next decade, licensing and training bottlenecks have constrained supply, forcing airlines to rely on costly and limited foreign pilots as stopgap measures.

Regulatory Capacity and Oversight Gaps

• Regulatory stress has compounded operational issues.
• The aviation regulator faces significant staff shortages, with a large proportion of technical positions vacant despite rapid sectoral growth.
• In practice, disruptions have often been managed through ad hoc exemptions rather than strict enforcement of safety norms.
• This approach reflects a shift toward crisis management instead of preventive regulation, weakening long-term institutional capacity and undermining confidence in oversight mechanisms.

Market Concentration and the Aviation Duopoly

• India’s domestic aviation market is highly concentrated, with two airline groups controlling nearly 90% of passenger traffic.
• This level of concentration transforms dominant carriers into systemically important entities whose failures directly impact national connectivity.
• On a majority of domestic routes, only one airline operates. Consequently, disruptions do not result in passenger redistribution but in the complete loss of connectivity, particularly affecting smaller cities and time-sensitive travel.

Entry of New Regional Airlines

• To address concentration and improve connectivity, the government has approved new regional airlines aimed at serving underserved routes.
• These entrants align with the objectives of the UDAN scheme, which has expanded regional air access across multiple States.
• However, past failures of regional airlines highlight persistent challenges such as high fuel costs, weak demand, infrastructure gaps, and intense price competition.
• Without sustained policy support, such as assured subsidies, better airport infrastructure, and relief from fuel price volatility, new entrants risk inheriting the same fragilities.

Structural Challenges and Fuel Price Volatility

• Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) remains one of the biggest cost drivers for Indian airlines.
• Prices are linked to global oil markets and currency fluctuations, exposing carriers to external shocks.
• Combined with thin profit margins, this volatility has historically contributed to airline failures.
• Globally, airlines maintain spare crew and capacity buffers to absorb shocks. Indian carriers, by contrast, operate at near-total utilisation, allowing minor disruptions to cascade across networks.

Context

• The contemporary world is experiencing a profound shift driven by Artificial Intelligence, a development comparable to the Industrial Revolution in its potential to reshape society.
• Rather than a gradual change, the moment resembles a structural rupture in which technological progress is transforming governance, economies, and security simultaneously.
• Advanced Large Language Models now perform reasoning, writing, and analysis, signalling a movement toward machine participation in intellectual activity.
• The central challenge is not merely adaptation to innovation but preserving human authority over increasingly capable systems.

AI as a General-Purpose Technological Revolution

• AI operates as a general-purpose technology, influencing nearly every sector of human activity.
• It reshapes communication, decision-making, and institutional functioning by processing vast amounts of data and generating predictive insights.
• Governments and courts, designed for gradual evolution, struggle to keep pace with exponential technological advancement.
• The replication of speech, vision, and reasoning blurs the boundary between human cognition and machine capability.
• AI systems increasingly influence administration, economic transactions, and knowledge production.
• As institutions attempt adjustment, a widening gap emerges between technological capability and regulatory readiness, raising concerns about accountability and reliability.

AI and the Transformation of Global Politics

• In the twenty-first century, geopolitics is being redefined by technological capacity rather than territorial control.
• Global competition, particularly between the United States and China, now centres on AI leadership, advanced algorithms, and control over information networks.
• Nations seek technological sovereignty by building domestic infrastructures, often described as sovereign stacks, to avoid dependence.
• AI has become a tool of diplomacy, intelligence, and economic influence. Access to information, computing power, and networked systems determines strategic influence.
• States capable of mastering AI may shape international standards and economic flows, while others risk strategic vulnerability and technological dependence.

AI and the Revolution in Warfare

• Transformation in Military Affairs
  • AI is shifting conflict from human-operated systems toward automated and autonomous
  • Unmanned vehicles, intelligent surveillance, and cyber weapons are redefining battlefield operations.
  • Military strategies now incorporate automated targeting, predictive analysis, and machine-assisted command structures.
• Rise of Asymmetric Warfare
  • AI dramatically alters power relationships by enabling asymmetric warfare. Smaller forces equipped with intelligent systems can challenge conventional armies.
  • Recent conflicts illustrate how drones and automated targeting can undermine traditional military superiority.
  • Power is no longer determined solely by heavy weaponry but by access to software, sensors, and real-time analytics.
• Autonomous Weapons and Ethical Concerns
  • The emergence of autonomous weapons introduces serious ethical dilemmas. When machines independently select targets, questions of accountability
  • Without human judgement, established legal and moral frameworks governing conflict may weaken.
  • The possibility of algorithm-driven combat challenges traditional concepts of responsibility and control.

AI Beyond the Battlefield and the Existential Risk

• AI Beyond the Battlefield: Social and Institutional Impact
  • Beyond military use, AI influences surveillance, finance, health care, and governance. Rapid automation enhances efficiency but also introduces systemic risks.
  • Courts and administrative bodies face challenges when machine-generated outputs contain inaccuracies or fabricated information.
  • Institutions evolve gradually, whereas technological capability expands rapidly. This mismatch threatens the stability of legal and administrative systems.
  • Societies must adapt governance structures to maintain trust and prevent misuse of automated decision-making.
• The Existential Risk: Loss of Human Control
  • A deeper concern emerges with the possibility of autonomy exceeding human oversight.
  • Advanced systems capable of self-learning may act unpredictably, especially in areas such as cybersecurity and information management.
  • The concentration of power within complex machine networks creates the risk of unintended consequences.
  • Potential scenarios include coordinated drone swarms, automated attacks, or manipulation of public perception through large-scale predictive analysis.
  • Such developments would shift technology from a tool of assistance to an independent operational force, challenging human agency and ethical responsibility.

The Path Forward: Need for Global Governance and Oversight

• Despite the risks, AI also offers benefits in crisis management, medical research, and conflict prevention.
• Effective regulation therefore becomes essential. International cooperation, ethical frameworks, and coordinated governance structures must guide development.
• Scientists, policymakers, and institutions must establish safeguards and shared standards.
• Balanced oversight can ensure that technological progress enhances welfare while preventing destabilising outcomes.

Conclusion

• Artificial intelligence is becoming the defining force of the modern era. It is reshaping political power, military capability, and social organisation.
• The future will depend on the ability of societies to integrate innovation responsibly.
• Proper oversight and cooperative frameworks can transform AI into a stabilising influence, while neglect could undermine global stability.
• The essential task is to ensure that technological progress remains aligned with human values and collective security.

Why in news?

During his first foreign visit of 2026 to Malaysia, PM Modi highlighted the deep-rooted presence of Tamil, underscoring that it is not just a diaspora language but a public and historical language in Malaysia.

Spoken across schools, temples, media, and cultural spaces, Tamil predates both the Malaysian nation-state and colonial rule. Its arrival was driven by centuries of maritime trade, labour migration, settlement, and cultural continuity, rather than modern policy.

This long civilisational history explains why nearly three million people of Indian origin—predominantly Tamil—form one of Southeast Asia’s most visible and well-established diasporas.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Before Plantations, There Were Ships: Tamil Roots in the Malay World
• A Century of Labour: How Plantation Migration Shaped Tamil Malaysia?
• The Political Moment: Diplomacy Built on a Deeper History
• A Diaspora That Feels Local: Tamil Life in Malaysia
• A Bond Older Than States

Before Plantations, There Were Ships: Tamil Roots in the Malay World

• Ancient Maritime Links - Long before British rule, maritime routes connected India’s Coromandel coast with ports along the Malay Peninsula, especially Kedah and the Strait of Malacca.
  • These links date back well before the 1st century BCE, facilitating sustained contact across the seas.
• Trade, Settlement, and Culture - Commerce in spices, textiles, and forest goods moved both ways—and so did people. South Indian merchant guilds formed semi-permanent settlements, built temples, and left Tamil inscriptions, embedding culture alongside trade.
• Religious and Social Exchange - Cultural exchange accompanied commerce, carrying Hindu and Buddhist practices into local societies. These were durable ties, not fleeting visits, shaping local religious and social life.
• Tamil Muslim Communities - Tamil Muslim traders—including Rowthers and Marakkayars—settled, intermarried locally, and remained. Place names, rituals, and customs still reflect these early arrivals.
• Before the Colonial Reorganisation - As noted by historians, Tamil presence was already woven into the region’s social fabric before European powers arrived. The British later reorganised and scaled up these movements—but did not begin them.

A Century of Labour: How Plantation Migration Shaped Tamil Malaysia

• Colonial Demand and Mass Migration - While early trade brought the first Tamils, British colonialism brought them in large numbers.
  • Plantation capitalism in Malaya—rubber estates, railways, tin mines, and ports—created huge labour demands.
  • Recruiters turned to the Madras Presidency, using the kangani system to bring bonded groups of workers.
• Life on the Estates - By the early 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Tamil labourers had arrived. They cleared forests, tapped rubber, and built infrastructure, often living in cramped estate lines with low wages and limited mobility.
  • Recruitment slowed by 1910 amid criticism, but a permanent community had formed.
• Oppression—and Endurance - As historian Carl Vadivella Belle noted, colonial labour life was marked by oppression and brutalisation. Yet within estates, Tamil society showed resilience—temples, Tamil schools, local presses, festivals like Thaipusam, and cinema sustained cultural life.
• Language as the Community’s Spine - Tamil became the anchor of continuity. Over generations, estate communities produced teachers, clerks, traders, and later professionals, enabling social mobility beyond plantations.
• Post-Independence Urban Shift - After 1957, families moved to cities like Kuala Lumpur and Penang for education and stable jobs. The transition expanded—rather than diluted—Tamil institutions.
• A Public Language, Not a Memory - Today, Tamil schools, newspapers, television, radio, and cinema thrive in Malaysia. The language remains publicly visible, making PM Modi’s observation about Tamil in “education, media, and cultural life” a structural reality, not a sentimental nod.

The Political Moment: Diplomacy Built on a Deeper History

• In his address, PM Modi framed the three million–strong Indian diaspora in Malaysia as a “living bridge” between the two nations.
• He announced practical measures—social security agreements, easier visas, and the rollout of India’s digital payment interface in Malaysia—to deepen people-to-people ties.
• The Cost of Migration and Settlement
  • Citing historian Carl Vadivella Belle, the scale and human cost of migration is stark:
    • At Merdeka (1957), Indians numbered 858,616, with 62.1% locally born
    • Between 1860 and 1957, around 4 million Indians entered Malaya and 2.8 million left
    • Much of the 1.2 million net immigration was lost to disease, exhaustion, malnutrition, and hazards
• Strategic Signalling, Cultural Resonance
  • Choosing Malaysia as the first foreign visit of 2026 signalled Southeast Asia’s importance to India’s Indo-Pacific strategy.
  • Yet the most resonant note of the speech was cultural, underscoring how language and lived history continue to anchor bilateral ties more powerfully than strategy alone.

A Diaspora That Feels Local: Tamil Life in Malaysia

• In parts of Kuala Lumpur where Tamil is widely spoken, the boundary between “Indian” and “Malaysian” fades.
• Families rooted for five or six generations see their histories tied to local estates and neighbourhoods, not distant villages in Tamil Nadu.
• Festivals and politics are distinctly local, even as the language carries echoes of the old coast across the sea.
• Malaysia’s Tamil community stands apart from newer diasporas. Shaped first by maritime trade, then empire, and finally nationhood, it is a historical community.
• Tamil here feels inherited rather than imported, sustained across generations.

A Bond Older Than States

• The Tamil–Malaysia connection predates governments: ships before steamers, temples before treaties, schools before summits.
• Long after speeches fade, this older current endures—steady, lived, and visible in everyday language and life.

Why in news?

The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) has informed the Lok Sabha Secretariat that questions or matters related to the PM CARES Fund, the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF), and the National Defence Fund (NDF) are not admissible under Lok Sabha rules.

The PMO cited Rule 41(2)(viii) and Rule 41(2)(xvii) of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha to state that such questions and discussions cannot be taken up in Parliament.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• PM CARES Fund, PMNRF and NDF: What Are These Funds?
• Government’s Stand on PM CARES Fund: Past Position Explained
• Supreme Court’s Ruling on the PM CARES Fund
• Why Lok Sabha Questions on PM CARES, PMNRF and NDF Are Not Admissible
• Rules Cited to Bar Lok Sabha Questions on PM CARES, PMNRF and NDF

PM CARES Fund, PMNRF and NDF: What Are These Funds

• The PM CARES Fund was set up on March 27, 2020, in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic.
• It was created to deal with emergency and distress situations and to provide relief during crises such as public health emergencies.
  • Full name: Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situations Fund
  • Legal status: Public Charitable Trust
  • Registered under the Registration Act, 1908, in New Delhi
  • Fund balance (March 2023): ₹6,283.7 crore (as per latest available report)
• Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF)
  • The Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund was established in January 1948, originally to assist refugees displaced from Pakistan after Partition.
  • Over time, its scope expanded and it is now primarily used to:
    • Provide immediate relief to families affected by natural calamities such as floods, cyclones, and earthquakes
    • Assist victims of major accidents and riots
  • The fund is financed through public contributions and is controlled by the Prime Minister’s Office.
• National Defence Fund (NDF)
  • The National Defence Fund is dedicated to the welfare of Armed Forces personnel, including paramilitary forces, and their dependents.
  • It is
    • Used for financial assistance and welfare measures
    • Administered by an Executive Committee
    • Chaired by the Prime Minister, with the Defence, Finance, and Home Ministers as members
• Common Feature
  • All three funds:
    • Are controlled or administered by the Prime Minister’s Office
    • Receive voluntary public contributions
    • Operate outside the Consolidated Fund of India, which has implications for parliamentary scrutiny

Government’s Stand on PM CARES Fund: Past Position Explained

• Public Charitable Trust, Not a Statutory Body - In January 2023, the Union government told the Delhi High Court that the PM CARES Fund is a public charitable trust, not created under the Constitution or by any law enacted by Parliament or a State legislature.
• Not ‘State’ Under Article 12 - The submission came in response to a plea seeking to declare PM CARES a “State” under Article 12 to ensure transparency.
  • The Centre argued that the trust is neither owned nor controlled by the government, and that trustees holding public office do so for administrative convenience, not governmental control.
• RTI Act Not Applicable - The government’s affidavit further stated that since PM CARES is not constituted under law or the Constitution, it does not qualify as a public authority under the Right to Information Act, and therefore is outside the RTI framework.

Supreme Court’s Ruling on the PM CARES Fund

• In August 2020, the Supreme Court of India refused to direct the transfer of money from the PM CARES Fund to the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).
• The Court held that the two are “entirely different funds” with distinct objectives and purposes, leaving “no occasion” for such a direction.
• The Court noted that:
  • The NDRF is audited by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) under specific guidelines
  • The PM CARES Fund, being a public charitable trust, does not fall under those guidelines, and therefore no CAG audit can be mandated

Why Lok Sabha Questions on PM CARES, PMNRF and NDF Are Not Admissible?

• The PMO has directed the Lok Sabha Secretariat not to admit questions or matters related to the PM CARES Fund, PMNRF, and the National Defence Fund on the ground that these funds are entirely financed through voluntary public contributions.
• Since they do not receive any allocation from the Consolidated Fund of India, they fall outside the scope of parliamentary scrutiny under Lok Sabha rules.
• This reasoning aligns with the Centre’s earlier position before courts that these funds are non-statutory, trust-based entities, not government funds subject to legislative oversight.

Rules Cited to Bar Lok Sabha Questions on PM CARES, PMNRF and NDF

• The PMO informed the Lok Sabha Secretariat that questions or matters related to PM CARES Fund, PMNRF and the National Defence Fund are not admissible under specific provisions of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
• Rule 41(2)(viii): Not a Government Concern
  • This rule bars questions that do not relate primarily to the concern of the Government of India.
  • The PMO argued that since the three funds are financed through voluntary public contributions and are not part of the Consolidated Fund of India, they do not fall under the government’s primary administrative domain.
• Rule 41(2)(xvii): Outside Government Control
  • This provision states that questions cannot raise matters under the control of bodies or persons not primarily responsible to the Government of India.
  • The PMO maintained that these funds operate as independent trusts, and hence are not directly accountable to the government in a manner that would permit parliamentary questioning.

Why in the News?

• Concerns have emerged over the alleged misuse of Form 7 applications during the ongoing Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls, leading to large-scale deletion of voters’ names across several States.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Electoral Rolls (Background, Importance)
• Form 7 (Basics, Legal Framework, SIR, Controversy, Voter Deletions, Verification Process, Concerns, Way Forward)

Electoral Rolls and Their Importance in Indian Democracy

• Electoral rolls form the foundation of India’s democratic process, ensuring that every eligible citizen has the right to vote.
• Prepared and updated under the Representation of the People Act, 1950, these rolls are periodically revised to include new voters and remove ineligible entries.
• The credibility of elections depends heavily on the accuracy, transparency, and fairness of this process.
• Any large-scale error or manipulation can directly impact political representation and voter confidence in the electoral system.

Form 7 and Its Legal Framework

• Form 7 is a statutory mechanism used to object to the inclusion of a person’s name in the electoral roll.
• Under the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, objections can be raised on specific grounds such as death, duplication of entries, shifting of residence, ineligibility due to age, or lack of citizenship.
• Earlier, objections could be raised only by voters from the same polling booth.
• However, a 2022 amendment expanded the scope, allowing any voter within a constituency to file objections.
• While intended to improve roll accuracy, this change also increased the risk of misuse.
• To prevent abuse, rules mandate verification by the Electoral Registration Officer (ERO), especially when an individual files more than five objections.

Special Intensive Revision of Electoral Rolls

• The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a comprehensive exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to update electoral rolls in select States and Union Territories.
• Phase II of the ongoing SIR has covered nearly 51 crore voters across multiple regions, including Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and others.
• The revision follows a compressed timeline, involving enumeration forms, objections, verification by Booth Level Officers (BLOs), and hearings before final publication of the rolls.

Nature of the Form 7 Controversy

• The controversy centres on the bulk filing of Form 7 applications, allegedly without the knowledge or consent of the voters concerned.
• Opposition parties have accused organised actors of misusing Form 7 to systematically delete the names of eligible voters, thereby distorting the electoral process.
• Reports from States such as Rajasthan and Gujarat have highlighted cases where individuals claimed that Form 7 applications were submitted in their names without their involvement.
• This has raised serious concerns about impersonation, procedural lapses, and administrative oversight.

Scale of Voter Deletions

• According to draft electoral rolls released during the SIR, around 6.5 crore voters were removed from the rolls across nine States and three Union Territories.
• These deletions reduced the total electorate from about 51 crore to 44.4 crore in the affected regions. The removed voters were categorised as ASD (Absent, Shifted, Dead/Duplicate).
• The highest number of deletions was reported from Uttar Pradesh, followed by Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
• Critics argue that the sheer scale of deletions, combined with a tight revision schedule, raises questions about the adequacy of verification and grievance redressal mechanisms.

Verification Process and Safeguards

• Once a Form 7 application is submitted, Booth Level Officers are required to conduct physical verification.
• In cases of alleged death, confirmation from neighbours and a death certificate are necessary.
• If a voter is reported absent, BLOs must conduct multiple visits to confirm relocation.
• Affected voters are entitled to receive notice and attend hearings before final deletion.
• Appeals against ERO decisions can be filed with the district magistrate within 15 days of the roll publication.
• Despite these safeguards, concerns persist about their effective implementation under time pressure.

Concerns and the Way Forward

• At the core of the controversy lies the risk of voter disenfranchisement, particularly among marginalised and economically weaker sections.
• Filing a false declaration under Form 7 is a punishable offence under Section 32 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950.
• Experts suggest stricter scrutiny of bulk applications, improved digital tracking, longer verification timelines, and enhanced transparency to restore trust in the electoral revision process.
• Ensuring balance between roll accuracy and voter protection remains crucial.

Why in News?

• The Indian Prime Minister and Seychelles President (Patrick Herminie) held bilateral talks in New Delhi, marking 50 years of diplomatic relations and coinciding with the 50th anniversary of Seychelles’ independence.
• The visit—within 100 days of President Herminie’s victory—underscores the strategic weight Seychelles attaches to India amid evolving geopolitics in the Western Indian Ocean Region (WIOR).
• The two countries adopted a Joint Vision for Sustainability, Economic Growth and Security through Enhanced Linkages (SESEL) and signed multiple agreements across sectors.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Strategic and Maritime Cooperation - The Core Pillar
• Joint Vision (SESEL) - Broadening the Partnership
• Economic and Developmental Assistance
• Geostrategic Significance
• India–Seychelles Relations
• Challenges
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Strategic and Maritime Cooperation - The Core Pillar:

• Defence and maritime security:
  • It remains the central pillar of bilateral ties, and collaboration includes -
    • Maritime surveillance
    • Defence capacity development
    • Counter-piracy operations
    • Combating international crime and maritime threats
    • Protection of critical Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs)
  • The cooperation assumes greater importance given rising piracy and economic offences in the strategic Indian Ocean Region (IOR), and growing geopolitical contestation in the region.
• Colombo Security Conclave (CSC):
  • Seychelles was welcomed as a full member of the CSC.
  • Originally formed in 2011 by India, Sri Lanka, and Maldives; CSC later expanded to include Mauritius and Bangladesh.
  • The inclusion of Seychelles strengthens regional efforts towards -
    • Maritime domain awareness
    • Regional stability
    • Cooperative security architecture in the IOR
  • This aligns with India’s broader SAGAR doctrine and Vision MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions).

Joint Vision (SESEL) - Broadening the Partnership:

• The adopted Joint Vision for SESEL expands cooperation beyond security into sustainable development.
• Key areas of cooperation:
  • Marine research and ocean governance: Ocean observation, maritime scientific research, data-sharing mechanisms.
  • Climate action and renewable energy: Cooperation in renewable energy solutions, climate resilience initiatives for small island developing states (SIDS).
  • Health cooperation: Pharmacopoeial collaboration, strengthening healthcare systems.
  • Digital transformation: Support in digital governance and capacity-building, enhancing e-governance frameworks.
  • Meteorological cooperation: Technical and scientific collaboration between meteorological authorities.
  • Capacity-building: Training programmes for Seychelles civil servants, institutional strengthening initiatives.
  • Cultural and people-to-people ties: Cultural Exchange Programme (2026–2030); tourism cooperation, with India emerging as a growing market.

Economic and Developmental Assistance:

• Special economic package: India announced a $175 million Special Economic Package, comprising $125 million Line of Credit (rupee-denominated) - remaining amount as grant assistance.
• The package will support:
  • Public housing, infrastructure, mobility, maritime security, and capacity-building.
  • This reflects India’s model of development partnership without conditionalities, especially for small island nations.

Geostrategic Significance:

• WIOR: Critical for global trade and energy flows. Seychelles’ strategic location enhances India’s maritime reach.
• Countering extra-regional influence: Strengthening ties helps balance growing external powers’ presence in the IOR. Reinforces India’s role as a net security provider.
• Blue economy and SIDS diplomacy: Seychelles, as a Small Island Developing State (SIDS), is central to climate diplomacy, sustainable ocean governance, and blue economy initiatives.
• People-centric diplomacy: Shared democratic values, historical and cultural linkages, and emphasis on inclusive development.

India–Seychelles Relations:

• Overview:
  • Today, India-Seychelles relations embody close friendship, understanding and cooperation.
  • Diplomatic ties were established with Seychelles after its independence in 1976.
  • With a significant presence of Indian Diaspora in Seychelles, cultural contacts between the two countries have been primarily community-driven with support from the two governments.
• Key aspects:
  • Trade: India exported goods worth US$ 64.88 million and imported goods worth US$ 8.96 million from Seychelles during 2022-23.
  • Energy and environment: A Blue Economy Protocol between India and Seychelles was signed in 2015.
  • Development assistance: An important aspect of bilateral cooperation revolves around various development assistance programs extended to Seychelles under ITEC, ICCR and IAFS.
  • Defence and security: India is a key security partner for Seychelles, helping with coastal surveillance, radar systems, and joint exercises like 'LAMITIYE'.

Challenges:

• Geopolitical competition in the IOR: Rising strategic competition may complicate smaller states’ balancing strategies.
• Climate vulnerability of Island States: Seychelles faces existential risks from climate change, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events.
• Maritime security threats: Piracy resurgence; drug trafficking; Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing
• Economic dependence on tourism: Seychelles’ economy remains vulnerable to global shocks.

Way Forward:

• Institutionalising: Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) through real-time data-sharing.
• Deepening: Blue Economy cooperation, including sustainable fisheries and marine biodiversity protection.
• Expanding: Renewable energy partnerships tailored to SIDS needs.
• Strengthening: Multilateral maritime frameworks, particularly through the CSC and IORA.
• Enhancing: Digital and governance partnerships for resilient institutions.
• Leveraging: India’s Vision MAHASAGAR and SAGAR doctrine to build a cooperative Indian Ocean architecture.

Conclusion:

• The India–Seychelles partnership is evolving from a traditional defence relationship into a multidimensional strategic partnership encompassing sustainability, digital transformation, climate action, and economic growth.
• As maritime neighbours in the Indian Ocean, their collaboration contributes not only to bilateral development but also to the broader architecture of peace, stability, and inclusive growth in the WIOR.
• In the emerging geopolitics of the Indo-Pacific, Seychelles remains a key pillar of India’s maritime vision, reinforcing India’s aspiration to be a credible and responsible security and development partner in the region.

Context

• The global diamond trade symbolises wealth and prestige but has also been linked to violence and political instability.
• During the 1990s, armed groups financed civil wars through illegal sales of rough diamonds, commonly called conflict diamonds.
• To curb this problem, the international community established the Kimberley Process, a multilateral framework regulating the trade of rough diamonds.
• India’s assumption of the chairmanship in 2026 marks a significant moment.
• Positioned at the centre of the international diamond value chain, India can guide reforms addressing ethical trade, accountability, and technological modernization while strengthening global governance

Origin and Evolution of the Kimberley Process

• Emergence of the Initiative
  • The initiative began in 2000 through dialogue among southern African nations to prevent the financing of wars through diamonds.
  • Negotiations among participating countries resulted in the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme in 2003.
  • The framework now includes 60 participants representing 86 countries and oversees about 99.8% of the world’s rough diamond production.
  • It functions as an important international regulatory arrangement controlling trade in a single high-value commodity.
• The Certification Mechanism
  • The certification scheme requires each shipment of rough diamonds to carry a validated certificate confirming legitimate origin.
  • Trade is permitted only between compliant member states, and participants must share statistical data on production and exports.
  • This mechanism is intended to maintain transparency and prevent illegal trade networks.

India’s Strategic Role in the Global Diamond Value Chain

• India is not a major producer but remains the largest global processor of diamonds.
• It imports nearly 40% of global rough diamonds and performs cutting and polishing mainly in Surat and Mumbai before exporting to the United States, China, the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and Hong Kong.
• Countries such as Angola, Botswana, Russia, Canada, Congo, and Namibia dominate mining, yet India controls the value-addition stage.
• This central position provides strong leverage within the supply chain and enables India to influence international standards through diplomacy and trade practices.

Major Challenges Facing the Kimberley Process

• Narrow Definition of Conflict Diamonds
  • The existing definition focuses only on diamonds funding rebel groups against governments.
  • It excludes broader abuses including state violence, forced labour, human trafficking, environmental damage, and exploitation in artisanal mining.
  • Consequently, diamonds linked to human rights violations may still enter legitimate markets.
• Decision-Making Constraints
  • The Kimberley Process relies on consensus, allowing any participant to block action through veto
  • This weakens enforcement and limits the system’s capacity to identify problematic sources.
• Ineffective Sanctions
  • The ban imposed on the Central African Republic in 2013 showed that embargoes alone can increase smuggling and instability.
  • Without economic assistance, communities dependent on mining face hardship, reducing the effectiveness of punitive measures.

Reform Opportunities Under India’s Chairmanship

• Institutional Reforms
  • A technical working group could examine violence and risks beyond rebel insurgencies and gradually build agreement for redefining conflict diamonds.
  • Institutional improvements may include independent audits, public disclosure of detailed data, and strengthened engagement with civil society.
• Technological Modernisation
  • Digital innovation offers a major reform pathway. A blockchain-based system could provide tamper-proof, time-stamped shipment records.
  • Enhanced digital certification would reduce fraud, improve traceability, and modernize the global supply chain.
• Capacity Building for Producer Countries
  • Support for producing regions is essential. Establishing regional capacity-building hubs in central and eastern Africa could provide training, technical support, and forensic
  • Cooperative reforms would encourage compliance rather than punishment.

Developmental Focus, the African Dimension and India’s Global Leadership Role

• Developmental Focus and the African Dimension
  • Diamond mining supports livelihoods across Africa.
  • Aligning KP initiatives with the SDGs, including poverty reduction and decent work, can ensure revenues contribute to local health, education, and infrastructure.
  • Responsible trade would shift the framework from restriction toward development, sustainability, and inclusive economic growth.
• India’s Global Leadership Role
  • As a major voice of the Global South, India can balance the interests of producers, processors, and consumers.
  • By strengthening accountability and promoting multilateralism, India can transform the Kimberley Process into a more credible international institution and reinforce its reputation as a constructive global actor.

Conclusion

• The Kimberley Process has reduced the circulation of conflict diamonds but remains constrained by narrow definitions, political limitations, and weak developmental engagement.
• India’s leadership in 2026 presents a major opportunity to implement institutional reforms, technological modernisation, and cooperative partnerships with African producers.
• A reformed framework emphasising transparency, community welfare, and ethical trade can convert the diamond industry into a responsible global system while strengthening international cooperation and sustainable economic progress.

Context

• In contemporary capitalism, markets increasingly rely not only on material resources but on a new, inexhaustible commodity: the human self.
• Modern economic systems extract value from identity, emotions, and lived experiences.
• Through digital networks and media infrastructures, individuals themselves become economic inputs.
• Personal narratives, everyday interactions, and expressions of identity circulate as exchangeable goods within a global economy.
• The digital environment allows human life to be continuously recorded, interpreted, and monetised, turning personality into a productive resource.

From Labour to Identity: A New Stage of Capitalist Extraction

• Classical industrial capitalism generated surplus value from human labour. In the current stage, extraction moves beyond labour into social existence itself.
• The new target is sociality, relationships, behaviour, and emotional expression.
• Friendships, families, preferences, and habits are tracked through profiling, creating datasets valuable to corporations and institutions.
• The erosion of privacy, intimacy, and trust follows, as daily life becomes observable and commercially useful.
• The process resembles extraction, where identity functions as raw material. The commodification of experience transforms communication into marketable information.
• Every interaction, online purchase, conversation, or political expression, becomes part of a continuous system of data collection.
• Human identity is no longer only personal; it is economically productive. The self becomes infinitely renewable, constantly generating information and therefore profit.

The Global Story Economy: Where Local and Global Converge

• The market thrives on stories. A worldwide demand exists for narratives rooted in specific places yet relatable everywhere.
• Folklore, migration journeys, conflict, and everyday struggles circulate internationally. The boundary between global and local dissolves as a single recorded event can travel across continents within seconds.
• News media, independent creators, and ordinary witnesses act as media networks feeding a shared narrative system.
• A local incident becomes globally meaningful once framed within larger social themes such as migration, violence, or cultural conflict. Locality no longer refers simply to physical proximity but to narrative relevance.
• Communities imagine themselves through international attention, while global audiences interpret distant experiences through familiar narrative patterns.
• This convergence transforms identity into content. Individuals, cities, and organisations participate in a continuous exchange of narratives. The story economy reorganises geography into a networked cultural marketplace.

Streaming Platforms and the Democratisation of the Self

• The rise of streaming services accelerates this transformation. Internet-based platforms distribute entertainment without traditional studios or broadcasting structures.
• Their success depends on relatable characters and ordinary experiences. The appearance of everyday people in entertainment suggests democratisation, where anyone may be visible.
• Yet visibility becomes economic participation.
• The modern individual increasingly exists as an algorithmic profile composed of behaviour patterns and measurable traits.
• Credit ratings, consumption histories, and recommendation systems construct a digital personality. Identity becomes fragmented and quantifiable rather than unified and stable. The selfie symbolises this shift.
• The image promises equality before the camera but simultaneously converts appearance into shareable currency. Personal representation is no longer private expression alone; it functions as cultural capital within platform economies.

Artificial Intelligence and the Expansion of Personhood

• The emergence of AI intensifies the instability of identity. Chatbots and virtual assistants simulate empathy, conversation, and emotional response. Machines now perform aspects of personality once considered uniquely human.
• By reproducing emotion, digital systems compete in communication, companionship, and decision-making.
• This development blurs distinctions between authentic and constructed identity. If emotional expression can be generated computationally, personhood becomes performative rather than inherent.
• Human identity becomes one version among many communicative agents in a shared environment.

The Chain of Storytelling and the Culture of Visibility

• A cultural logic governs the system: everyone has a story, and every story deserves an audience. Social platforms enable constant storytelling, encouraging users to narrate achievements, trauma, failure, or redemption.
• The pursuit of virality drives participation, as visibility promises recognition and economic opportunity.
• Influencers, content creators, and public figures cultivate audiences through regular self-disclosure.
• Platforms reward attention, converting narratives into advertising revenue and social influence.
• Individuals willingly share experiences for validation and opportunity, participating in their own economic incorporation.
• This produces a cycle in which identity requires performance. The desire for recognition sustains continuous self-presentation.
• The audience becomes essential to personal meaning, while attention functions as currency. Human life transforms into an ongoing broadcast within a market for visibility.

Conclusion

• The modern economy increasingly relies on identity and self-presentation rather than material production, turning personal experience, emotion, communication, and data into valuable resources.
• Through digital representation and the circulation of narratives, everyday private life is integrated into economic systems that extract value from how people live, express, and connect.
• This creates a paradox: individuals enjoy unprecedented opportunities for participation and expression, yet their visibility also places the self itself, constantly observed and commercially used, at the centre of a global marketplace as a renewable commodity.

Why in news?

India will host the AI Impact Summit 2026 from February 16 to 20, marking the first time this global AI governance forum is being held in the Global South.

The summit aims to generate actionable, long-term policy recommendations rather than impose immediate binding regulations. It seeks to align AI governance with inclusive growth, sustainability, and social impact.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background: Evolution of Global AI Summits
• India’s Distinct Approach
• India AI Impact Summit 2026: What to Expect
• Opening Up to China at the AI Impact Summit
• Hardware and Energy: India’s Key AI Constraints

Background: Evolution of Global AI Summits

• The summit builds on a series of international meetings on AI governance.
• The Bletchley Park AI Safety Summit (2023) focused on identifying catastrophic AI risks.
• The Seoul Summit (2024) widened the agenda to include innovation and inclusivity.
• The Paris AI Action Summit (2025) shifted attention to implementation and economic opportunities.
• Each iteration has gradually expanded the scope beyond safety towards practical and developmental concerns.

India’s Distinct Approach

• Unlike earlier summits centred on regulation and risk containment, India is steering the discussion towards “People, Planet, and Progress.”
• The focus is on developing AI solutions that address real-world challenges, especially in developing countries.
• This reflects India’s dual role as an emerging AI power and a representative voice of the Global South.
• Through this summit, India is positioning itself to secure a larger role in shaping global AI governance and capturing greater economic and developmental benefits from the technology.

India AI Impact Summit 2026: What to Expect

• Scale and Significance - The AI Impact Summit 2026 has been described by Union IT Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw as the largest such global gathering so far, with strong international interest and participation.
• High-Level Global Participation - The summit is expected to host representatives from over 100 countries, including 15–20 heads of government, more than 50 ministers, and over 40 CEOs of leading global and Indian companies.
  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate the event, host a dinner, and address a CEO roundtable.
• Diverse Stakeholders - Participants will include governments, industry leaders, researchers, civil society organisations, and international institutions, highlighting the summit’s multi-stakeholder approach to AI governance and development.
• Key Themes and Deliberations - The summit will feature working groups and discussions on major issues such as AI’s impact on jobs, trust and safety frameworks for AI systems, and the application of AI across key industries.
• India’s AI Push and Model Launches - As part of the Rs 10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, the government will launch several indigenous AI language models during the summit, including foundational and small language models.
• Startup and Innovation Showcase - The event will showcase over 500 AI startups and host around 500 sessions alongside the main programme, making it one of the most comprehensive global forums focused on artificial intelligence.

Opening Up to China at the AI Impact Summit

• Chinese Participation at the Summit - China is expected to send a delegation to the AI Impact Summit, following a formal invitation extended by India last year as both countries seek to strengthen domestic AI capabilities.
• Summit Format and Invitations - The AI Summit is not a formal multilateral grouping. Participation is determined by the host country, giving India the discretion to invite China despite geopolitical sensitivities.
• Precedents from Earlier Summits - When the UK hosted the first AI Safety Summit, it faced opposition from allies and domestic lawmakers over inviting China, but proceeded nonetheless. China also participated in the subsequent summits in Seoul and Paris.
• Signal of Easing India–China Ties - India’s invitation to China reflects a gradual thaw in bilateral relations. Earlier this year, direct flights between the two countries resumed after a gap of more than five years.
• Trade and Supply Chain Developments - China has also begun clearing applications from firms supplying rare earth components to Indian automobile manufacturers, easing earlier restrictions imposed amid global trade tensions.

Hardware and Energy: India’s Key AI Constraints

• Dependence on Imported Computing Hardware - A major disadvantage for India in the AI race is the lack of domestically produced advanced hardware. Access to high-end GPUs, which power AI systems, depends largely on imports, limiting self-reliance.
• Hopes from India–US Tech Trade - The proposed interim India–US trade deal offers some relief. It is expected to significantly expand trade in technology products, including GPUs and data centre equipment, and deepen joint technology cooperation.
• Policy Push for Data Centres - India has announced a tax holiday until 2047 for foreign companies setting up data centres. This aims to attract global players and build domestic AI infrastructure, even as reliance on imported hardware continues.
• Budget Signals and AI Mission - In the Union Budget 2026–27, the allocation for subsidising compute under the IndiaAI Mission was halved. This came alongside strong growth in electronics manufacturing and iPhone exports, indicating shifting priorities.
• Energy Needs and Nuclear Power - Powering AI data centres is emerging as a critical challenge. The government is exploring nuclear energy as a long-term solution.

Why in news?

Recently, Anthropic released 11 open-source plugins for Claude Cowork, its AI workplace tool. Unlike regular chatbots, Cowork works like a digital colleague. It can read files, write documents, review contracts, and complete tasks across legal, finance, sales, and marketing with little human input.

A few days later, Anthropic launched Claude Opus 4.6. This new model can manage and coordinate multiple AI agents to carry out complex work such as financial research and due diligence.

This marked a major leap in autonomous AI capabilities, enabling AI agents to independently handle complex workplace tasks across sectors.

Markets reacted sharply. Global software stocks saw heavy losses, with major US SaaS firms and Indian IT companies witnessing steep declines.

The sell-off reflected fears that autonomous AI could replace large teams, threatening traditional, headcount-driven business models—especially in India’s IT outsourcing industry.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About SaaS
• ‘SaaSpocalypse’: Why AI Is Being Seen as an Existential Threat to SaaS
• Real-World AI Disruption Across Professional Services
• India Inc’s AI Pivot: Incremental Moves in a Fast-Moving Disruption
• Jobs at Risk, Roles Rewritten: How AI Is Reshaping Indian IT Employment

About SaaS

• Software as a Service (SaaS) is a cloud-based software delivery model where applications are hosted by a vendor and accessed by users over the internet, typically via a web browser.
• Instead of installing and maintaining software locally, users subscribe to the service, allowing for easier access, automatic updates, and flexible, pay-as-you-go pricing.

‘SaaSpocalypse’: Why AI Is Being Seen as an Existential Threat to SaaS

• The term “SaaSpocalypse” reflects market fears that advanced AI is not just improving software but replacing it altogether.
• As AI agents perform tasks autonomously, the traditional per-user SaaS pricing model looks vulnerable.
• This has triggered a sharp selloff in software stocks, with investors questioning whether businesses will still pay for large software licences when AI can deliver the same outcomes with fewer people and tools.
• While analysts warn that markets may be overreacting, the episode highlights a real structural shift in how software value is created and priced.

Real-World AI Disruption Across Professional Services

• The direction of AI-driven disruption has been visible for years. In March 2023, Bloomberg launched BloombergGPT, a domain-specific financial model trained on an unprecedented volume of proprietary data.
• It outperformed general AI models on core financial tasks, proving that specialised AI could decisively augment — and eventually automate — expert work.
• From tools to autonomous agents
  • BloombergGPT assisted professionals within a closed system.
  • The newer shift, seen with Claude Cowork, takes this further by deploying AI as autonomous agents that operate across enterprises, executing workflows with minimal human input.
  • This transition from “AI-assisted” to “AI-operated” systems has unsettled markets.
• Legal services: automation shock
  • Claude’s legal plugins automate contract review, NDA screening, and compliance tracking — tasks that form the backbone of legal services.
  • The impact was immediate: Thomson Reuters saw its steepest ever single-day stock fall, while LegalZoom, RELX, and Wolters Kluwer suffered sharp declines.
• Financial services: AI runs the back office
  • Goldman Sachs’ partnership with Anthropic marks a turning point.
  • Unlike earlier AI tools that supported analysts, Claude-based agents are being used to automate trade accounting, compliance, and client onboarding.
  • This move triggered selloffs in firms like FactSet, S&P Global, and Moody’s.
• Healthcare: agentic AI at scale
  • Cognizant’s collaboration with Palantir embeds AI agents into the TriZetto healthcare platform, which processes over half of US medical claims.
  • These systems now handle routing, claims adjudication, and supply chains, with humans intervening only in exceptions.
• Workforce implications
  • Industry leaders are openly acknowledging disruption. Anthropic’s CEO has warned that AI could displace half of entry-level white-collar jobs within five years.
  • Salesforce’s CEO has said the company will not hire more engineers or lawyers due to AI efficiency gains.
• Coding as a leading indicator
  • AI’s impact is already visible in software development. Experts report most of the coding are now done by AI agents, with humans editing the output.
  • Research suggests AI may author 20% of public GitHub commits by year-end, signalling a broader shift in knowledge work.

India Inc’s AI Pivot: Incremental Moves in a Fast-Moving Disruption

• Indian IT companies have begun responding to AI-driven disruption, but largely through cautious, incremental investments.
• The core challenge is speed. Autonomous AI agents are rapidly automating the very high-volume, repetitive tasks that underpin India’s outsourcing model.
  • As global clients embed AI directly into operations — from banks deploying agentic workflows to defence agencies consolidating software under single platforms — the traditional argument of slow enterprise adoption is losing credibility.
• To stay relevant, Indian IT firms must shift from labour-based delivery to AI deployment partnerships.
• Their competitive advantage lies in deep domain expertise across sectors like banking, insurance and healthcare.
• Combining this knowledge with leading AI platforms offer a viable path forward in an era where AI is reshaping services at unprecedented speed.

Jobs at Risk, Roles Rewritten: How AI Is Reshaping Indian IT Employment

• The near-term impact on Indian IT jobs is unsettling.
• Firms are cutting headcount, freezing fresher hiring, and automating entry-level roles in testing, maintenance and compliance — the traditional backbone of the outsourcing model. These trends signal genuine disruption, not just cyclical slowdown.
• At the same time, a new layer of opportunity is emerging.
• Autonomous AI systems operating in regulated sectors still require Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) oversight — people to validate decisions, manage exceptions, ensure compliance, and uphold ethical and governance standards.
• These roles rely on domain expertise and judgment rather than routine coding.
• The shift points to three growth avenues: AI deployment partnerships within enterprises, HITL operations centres for regulated industries, and large-scale reskilling to prepare engineers to design, supervise and govern AI systems.
• The employment challenge is real — but so is the chance to redefine the nature of tech work in India.

Why in the News?

• India and Malaysia signed multiple agreements during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Kuala Lumpur in February 2026, marking a strategic deepening of bilateral ties.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India-Malaysia Relationship (Historical Links, Political & Diplomatic Engagement, Trade Ties, Defence & Security Cooperation, etc.)
• News Summary

India-Malaysia Bilateral Relationship

• Historical and Civilisational Links
  • India and Malaysia share deep civilisational connections dating back over two millennia, shaped by trade, religion, language, and cultural exchanges across the Indian Ocean.
  • Elements of Indian culture, including Sanskrit influences, Hindu-Buddhist traditions, and later Islamic connections, are visible in Malaysia’s historical evolution.
  • Modern diplomatic relations were established soon after India’s independence, with consistent political engagement since then.
• Political and Diplomatic Engagement
  • India and Malaysia elevated their relationship to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2024, reflecting growing political trust.
  • High-level visits, regular foreign office consultations, and cooperation at multilateral forums such as the United Nations and ASEAN-led platforms form the backbone of diplomatic engagement.
  • Malaysia has supported India’s demand for permanent membership of a reformed UN Security Council, reinforcing political convergence.
• Trade and Economic Cooperation
  • Malaysia is India’s 3^rd largest trading partner within ASEAN. Between April 2000 and March 2025, Malaysia invested about US$ 1.27 billion in India.
  • Bilateral trade between the two countries stood at US$ 19.86 billion in 2024-25, comprising Indian exports worth US$ 7.32 billion and imports valued at US$ 12.54 billion.
  • Owing to its strategic location along the Strait of Malacca and the South China Sea, Malaysia is a key pillar of India’s Act East Policy and an important partner in India’s maritime connectivity strategy.
  • India’s major exports include petroleum products, engineering goods, meat and dairy products, and organic chemicals, while India’s major imports from Malaysia consist of vegetable oils, machinery, electrical equipment, and minerals.
• Defence and Security Cooperation
  • Defence ties have expanded steadily through joint exercises, maritime cooperation, and capacity building.
  • As maritime neighbours in the Indian Ocean and Indo-Pacific region, both countries share concerns over freedom of navigation, maritime security, and non-traditional threats such as piracy and terrorism.
  • Intelligence sharing and counter-terrorism cooperation have gained prominence in recent years.
• Diaspora and People-to-People Ties
  • The Indian diaspora in Malaysia, numbering over 2 million, plays a crucial role in strengthening bilateral ties.
  • Persons of Indian Origin are active in Malaysia’s politics, business, education, and culture.
  • Educational exchanges, tourism, and cultural diplomacy further enhance people-to-people relations.
• Shared Regional and Global Platforms
  • Both countries actively engage through ASEAN, the East Asia Summit, and the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).
  • India recognises ASEAN centrality in the Indo-Pacific, while Malaysia supports India’s Act East Policy, creating strategic alignment at the regional level. 

News Summary

• During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Kuala Lumpur, India and Malaysia agreed to significantly broaden cooperation across multiple high-priority sectors.
• The two sides signed 11 agreements and MoUs, covering areas such as defence cooperation, semiconductors, digital technologies, health, and energy
• A major highlight was the framework agreement on semiconductor collaboration, reflecting both countries’ intent to integrate into global supply chains for advanced manufacturing.
• India invited Malaysian investment in electronics, AI, renewable energy, and healthcare, while showcasing domestic reforms aimed at improving ease of doing business.
• Both leaders strongly reaffirmed a zero-tolerance approach to terrorism, explicitly condemning cross-border terrorism and calling for global cooperation against terror financing, radicalisation, and misuse of emerging technologies.
• Prime Minister Modi stressed that there would be “no double standards, no compromise” on terrorism.
• Defence cooperation is set to expand further, particularly in maritime security, intelligence sharing, and joint capacity-building initiatives.
• The two sides also agreed to enhance cooperation in multilateral fora, including the UN and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF).
• Another notable development was the decision to promote trade settlement in local currencies, the Indian Rupee and Malaysian Ringgit, to reduce transaction costs and dependence on third-country currencies.
• Malaysia reiterated its support for India’s permanent membership in a reformed UNSC.
• India also announced the establishment of a new Indian Consulate General in Malaysia, aimed at improving consular services and strengthening diaspora engagement.
• The visit underscored the strategic convergence between the two countries on Indo-Pacific stability, ASEAN centrality, and reform of global governance institutions.

Context:

• The Union Budget 2026–27 positioned the textile sector as a strategic driver of economic growth, employment generation, export expansion, and rural livelihood support.
• The Budget marks a shift from fragmented, scheme-based support to an integrated value-chain approach, covering fibre to fashion.
• However, the core question remains - Will India merely expand textile production, or will it capture the higher value embedded in design, branding, and global fashion markets?

Key Budget Announcements for the Textile Sector:

• Integrated value-chain approach:
  • The Budget outlines five major programmes -
    • National Fibre Scheme: Ensuring sustainable raw material supply, and strengthening upstream fibre production.
    • Textile Expansion and Employment Scheme: Focusing on scaling manufacturing capacity, and employment-intensive growth model.
    • National Handloom and Handicraft Programme (Consolidated): Rationalising multiple schemes, and strengthening artisan ecosystems.
    • Text-ECON Initiative: Enhancing global competitiveness, and supporting modernisation and exports.
    • Samarth 2.0 (Skill Development Upgrade): Focus on workforce modernisation, industry-oriented skilling.
  • Significance: These schemes together signal a shift towards a holistic blueprint, linking fibre production, manufacturing, artisan livelihoods, skills, and exports.
• Mahatma Gandhi Gram Swaraj Initiative:
  • It is designed to strengthen khadi, handloom, and handicraft sectors through improved market access, branding, and training.
  • This reflects a welcome recognition that India’s textile strength lies not only in mechanised mills, but also in its vast cultural and craft ecosystems — systems that sustain millions of rural livelihoods.
  • This will strengthen rural non-farm employment, aligning with Atmanirbhar Bharat and inclusive growth.
• Mega Textile Parks in “Challenge Mode”:
  • Expansion of infrastructure: Similar to PM MITRA Parks, consolidating manufacturing, logistics, value addition, with special focus on technical textiles.
  • Significance: It will reduce logistics costs, encourage economies of scale, attract private investment (reflected in positive equity market response).

Strategic Shift in Textile Policy:

• Earlier approach: Isolated schemes targeting individual bottlenecks, and fragmented policy architecture.
• Budget 2026 approach:
  • Integrated, value-chain-based policy
  • Treating textiles as a strategic industrial ecosystem
  • Connecting economic, social, and cultural dimensions
  • Reflecting a maturing policy imagination

Key Challenges and Gaps Identified:

• The value creation deficit:
  • Though India exports fabric, garments, and embellishments, it remains a low-margin, cost-competitive supplier, weak in brand ownership and creative authorship.
  • Missing elements: Design education, trend intelligence systems, sustainability certification, and brand-oriented export strategy.
  • Without these, India risks being a volume producer, not a value-setter in global fashion.
• Narrow framing of skills:
  • While Samarth 2.0 modernises workforce skills, it focuses mainly on operational training.
  • Missing elements: Creative capabilities, design leadership, managerial competence, systems-level thinking, and digital and sustainability integration.
  • In a global market driven by fast fashion cycles, digital tools, ESG compliance, and consumer consciousness, skill depth matters as much as scale.
• Artisan vulnerability and pricing power:
  • Even with Gram Swaraj support, structural issues (fragmented supply chains, inconsistent quality standards, weak bargaining power, income insecurity) persist.
  • Therefore, assured procurement mechanisms, transparent pricing systems, quality certification frameworks, and direct market access platforms (digital marketplaces) are needed.
  • Otherwise, artisans remain vulnerable despite increased output.
• External trade pressures:
  • Opportunities: Emerging trade agreements (e.g., with the European Union), and expanded global market access.
  • Risks: Competition from Bangladesh, Vietnam; fluctuating tariffs; stringent compliance norms; and sustainability standards.
  • India must combine infrastructure, scale, brand building, and standards compliance.

Way Forward - From “Make More” to “Value Better”:

• Move towards brand ownership: Promote Indian global fashion brands. Incentivise design-led exports. Create fashion innovation hubs.
• Strengthen creative ecosystem: Invest in top-tier design institutes. Encourage industry-academia collaboration. Support IP protection in fashion.
• Secure artisan livelihoods structurally: Introduce minimum support mechanisms. Digital platforms for direct selling. GI tagging and certification expansion. Transparent value-chain integration.
• Focus on sustainability and compliance: Green textiles, circular economy practices, and ESG-based export readiness.
• Build technical textile leadership: R&D support; high-tech manufacturing clusters; and defence, medical, and industrial textile integration.

Conclusion:

• Union Budget 2026–27 marks a turning point in India’s textile policy. It transitions from fragmented to an integrated approach, recognising textiles as central to India’s economic and social fabric.
• Yet scale alone is not destiny. So, India’s textile ambition must ultimately be measured not just in export volumes, but in value captured, livelihoods secured, and cultural capital elevated.

Context

• Five years after the February 2021 coup, Myanmar’s military organised elections between December 2025 and January 2026 to project political normalcy.
• The military-backed USDP emerged victorious in a tightly managed political environment marked by restricted participation, suppression of opposition, and ongoing armed conflict.
• Rather than restoring civilian rule, the process sought to institutionalise military authority.
• The elections hold wider regional importance, particularly for India, which shares borders, security concerns, and economic ambitions tied to Myanmar.

Manufactured Legitimacy and Controlled Participation

• The electoral exercise functioned primarily as a mechanism to produce legitimacy. Voting occurred in only 265 of 330 townships, excluding large populations.
• Polling remained concentrated in urban wards, while rural areas under resistance influence were effectively absent from the process.
• Political competition was systematically eliminated. The Election Commission dissolved major parties including the NLD, the Arakan National Party, and the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, while senior leaders were imprisoned.
• At the same time, numerous serving and retired military officers contested under the USDP banner.
• Turnout figures reinforced the credibility crisis. The regime reported roughly 55% participation, a sharp fall from earlier elections.
• Under conditions of fear and surveillance, reduced participation signified silent political rejection rather than apathy.
• The elections thus represented controlled participation rather than democratic choice.

Elections Amid Civil War

• The polls took place amid widespread conflict. Since 2021, thousands of civilians, activists, and journalists have been killed, tens of thousands arrested, and more than 113,000 structures destroyed, especially in Sagaing and Magway.
• Repression strengthened armed opposition. The People’s Defence Forces, working alongside long-standing ethnic armed organisations, now control significant territory, including dozens of towns.
• The state therefore lacks full sovereignty over its territory.
• Under such conditions, elections cannot stabilise governance. Instead, they deepen political division: participation would validate military rule, while opposition groups view armed struggle as the only viable option.
• The electoral process therefore risks intensifying violence rather than resolving it.

India’s Diplomatic Balancing Act

• For India, Myanmar is a strategic neighbour and a gateway central to the Act East Policy.
• Official statements support democracy and call for free and inclusive elections while avoiding direct recognition of the junta’s authority.
• High-level engagement continues. Diplomatic contacts, including leadership meetings, demonstrate ongoing engagement while carefully avoiding endorsement.
• India simultaneously maintains distance by clarifying non-official involvement during the election period.
• Humanitarian outreach strengthens this calibrated approach. Relief operations and medical assistance following the 2025 earthquake allowed India to maintain a constructive role without conferring political approval.
• The strategy effectively amounts to engagement without full diplomatic validation.

Security and Economic Implications for India

• Refugee Flows
  • Violence has driven significant refugees into India, particularly into Mizoram and Manipur.
  • The absence of a national refugee policy places heavy administrative burdens on state governments and exposes governance gaps.
  • Continued instability is likely to sustain these movements.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity
  • Major connectivity initiatives, the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project and the Trilateral Highway, have experienced repeated delays due to insecurity.
  • Claims of post-election normalisation are unlikely to improve ground conditions, forcing reassessment of timelines and investment risks.
• Non-Traditional Security Threats
  • State fragility has accelerated trafficking, narcotics trade, and organised crime.
  • A major concern is the growth of cyber-scam centres and cyber slavery networks operating in conflict zones.
  • Thousands of Indians have already been rescued, yet many remain trapped. These emerging threats demand coordinated domestic and regional responses.

The Limits of International Pressure

• Western governments and ASEAN have declined to recognise the election results. However, external pressure alone cannot resolve Myanmar’s political crisis.
• The military remains entrenched, while opposition forces remain fragmented.
• India therefore pursues a dual policy: maintaining communication with the authorities while also sustaining contact with local stakeholders.
• This approach acknowledges uncertainty regarding Myanmar’s future political order and prioritises stability along the frontier.

Conclusion

• Myanmar’s 2025–26 elections did not signal democratic restoration but an effort to formalise military rule under institutional cover.
• Conducted under repression and territorial fragmentation, the process failed to address the underlying political crisis and may prolong instability.
• For India, the situation presents a lasting dilemma; disengagement risks border instability and economic disruption, while recognition would compromise democratic commitments.
• New Delhi therefore follows a careful middle path, balancing ideals with national interest.

Context

• The suicide of three sisters in Ghaziabad provoked national grief and immediate calls for strict action against digital platforms.
• Public anger often seeks a clear cause and a decisive response, and social media became the primary target.
• Yet complex social problems rarely yield to simple remedies. While online environments can intensify psychological distress among adolescents, a blanket prohibition risks replacing thoughtful policy with reaction.
• The challenge lies in protecting children without undermining their rights, autonomy, and participation in modern life.
• Effective solutions must therefore balance safety with access, focusing on responsible governance rather than elimination.

Social Media and Adolescent Mental Health

• Research consistently associates heavy social media use with anxiety, depression, self-harm, and body image dissatisfaction, particularly among teenage girls.
• Online comparison, cyberbullying, and constant performance pressure can aggravate emotional vulnerability.
• These findings warrant concern but require careful interpretation. Digital exposure rarely operates as a single cause; instead, it interacts with loneliness, academic stress, or family conflict.
• Overstating its influence risks ignoring broader psychological and social contexts. The issue is therefore not whether harm exists, but how society should address it without restricting opportunity.

Global Responses and the Rise of Moral Panic

• International Policy Trends
  • Governments across the world have pursued strict regulation.
  • Australia has barred users under sixteen from major platforms through mandatory age verification, while Spain has proposed similar measures and legal liability for harmful algorithms.
  • These policies promise swift protection and visible accountability.
• The Concept of Moral Panic
  • Such reactions reflect a moral panic, where a complex problem is attributed to a single identifiable threat.
  • A technological villain offers emotional clarity and political reassurance. However, symbolic crackdowns seldom resolve underlying causes.
  • Emotional satisfaction can overshadow careful analysis, resulting in policies that appear decisive yet produce limited real-world benefit.

Why a Social Media Ban Would Fail in India?

• Technical Ineffectiveness
  • Restrictions are easily bypassed. Adolescents often possess higher digital literacy than regulators and can access platforms through VPNs or alternative applications.
  • Prohibitions may push users into unregulated or encrypted spaces, increasing exposure to grooming, extremism, and exploitation.
  • Mandatory surveillance through identity verification also raises privacy risks.
• Ignoring the Social Value of Digital Platforms
  • For many teenagers, especially those in marginalised settings, online spaces offer community, belonging, and support.
  • Rural youth, socially isolated adolescents, and LGBTQ individuals rely on digital networks to express identity and seek advice.
  • Removing access may deepen isolation rather than improve well-being.
• Democratic Deficit in Policymaking
  • Policies affecting young people often exclude their voices. Adolescents are treated as passive subjects instead of participants.
  • A meaningful democracy requires consultation, listening, and recognition of lived experiences.
  • Regulation designed without youth engagement risks misunderstanding both problems and solutions.
• Reinforcing Gender Inequality
  • A prohibition would likely intensify gender disparities. Internet access in India already favours boys over girls.
  • Within conservative households, restrictions would lead families to confiscate devices primarily from daughters, limiting education, skills, and mobility.
  • A protective measure could therefore entrench inequality rather than reduce harm.

A Better Policy Approach

• Regulating Technology Companies
  • Attention must shift from controlling children to governing corporations. Platform algorithms are designed to maximise engagement and profit.
  • Governments should impose enforceable duty of care obligations, establish competition law, and require accountability for harmful design practices.
  • An independent regulator with technical expertise would be better suited than general administrative authorities.
• Promoting Research and Youth Participation
  • Comprehensive research is needed to understand how online behaviour varies across class, caste, and region.
  • Long-term studies should inform policy rather than speculation. Young people must participate directly in consultation processes, shaping interventions that affect their daily lives.

The Way Forward

• Expanding the Debate: Artificial Intelligence and Child Safety
  • Concerns about harm extend beyond social media. Increasing reliance on AI chatbots for advice and emotional support introduces new risks.
  • Excessive dependence may create cognitive weakness in critical thinking and expose minors to inappropriate interactions.
  • Consistent standards are required across all digital technologies, not selective regulation.
• Toward a Healthy Media Ecology
  • Technology is neither inherently beneficial nor inherently harmful. Its effects depend on structure, incentives, and guidance.
  • A balanced media ecology requires education, supervision, and responsible design.
  • Rather than absolute acceptance or rejection, society must cultivate informed use and ethical innovation.

Conclusion

• Public grief after the Ghaziabad tragedy generated urgent demands for bans, but prohibition offers only the illusion of control.
• It would be technically ineffective, socially damaging, democratically weak, and potentially discriminatory.
• Meaningful protection lies in regulating corporations, strengthening research, and involving young citizens in governance.
• By prioritising thoughtful regulation over reaction, society can protect mental health while preserving opportunity, ensuring both safety and dignity for the next generation.

Why in news?

Under their interim trade agreement, India and the United States have agreed to significantly expand trade in technology products, particularly Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) and other equipment critical for data centres, alongside deeper joint technology cooperation.

The move aligns with India’s broader push to strengthen its digital and AI ecosystem. New Delhi has announced a tax holiday for foreign firms setting up data centres, reduced budgetary support under its flagship AI mission—shifting focus from subsidies to market-driven investment. It is witnessing a surge in iPhone exports, signalling growing integration with global technology supply chains.

As India lacks domestic GPU manufacturing capacity, it will rely heavily on imports, primarily from US-based firms such as Nvidia, to meet the rapidly rising compute demand of AI startups developing models and applications.

The agreement is expected to improve access to high-end computing hardware while positioning India as an attractive destination for data centre investments.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• On GPUs: A Positive Shift for India’s AI Ambitions
• India Meets Key US Demand on Data Centres
• A $100 Billion Opportunity for India’s Electronics Sector

On GPUs: A Positive Shift for India’s AI Ambitions

• The IndiaAI Mission saw its allocation reduced to ₹1,000 crore for 2026–27, down from ₹2,000 crore in the current fiscal, raising concerns about India’s AI momentum.
• The ₹10,370 crore mission aims to subsidise GPU access for startups and researchers developing AI models.
• So far, around 40,000 GPUs have been installed under the mission—widely seen as inadequate, especially when compared to the massive compute capacity available to leading American AI companies.
• India–US Trade Deal Offers an Alternative Route
  • The India–US interim trade agreement to increase trade in GPUs offers a market-driven alternative to public subsidies.
  • Since India lacks domestic GPU manufacturing, improved access to imports—primarily from US firms—can help bridge the compute gap for Indian startups.
• Contrast with Biden-Era Export Controls
  • This marks a clear departure from the approach under former US President Joe Biden.
  • Before leaving office, the Biden administration introduced stringent export controls on GPUs, placing limits on the number of GPUs India could import, citing national security concerns.
    • These restrictions were part of a broader global framework.
  • After President Donald Trump took office, the framework was set aside, easing access for partners like India.
• Escaping China-Style Technology Restrictions
  • From a strategic standpoint, India has secured favourable terms:
    • It has avoided China-style export controls, under which Beijing is barred from importing the most advanced GPUs
    • Although US restrictions on China have seen some recent dilution, they remain far stricter than those applied to India
  • This positions India as a trusted technology partner, rather than a restricted market.

India Meets Key US Demand on Data Centres

• Data centres have emerged as a major pillar of India–US technology cooperation. In a significant policy move, India announced a tax holiday until 2047 for foreign companies setting up data centres in the country, addressing a long-standing US demand.
• This incentive was announced in the Union Budget and signals India’s intent to position itself as a global hub for digital and AI infrastructure.
• US Demands in Trade Negotiations
  • During bilateral trade talks, the United States sought:
    • Greater market access for US data centre companies
    • Tax incentives
    • Affordable access to land, electricity, and water
    • Duty exemptions on select imports
  • By offering a long-term tax holiday, India has acted on one of the core US asks, strengthening the investment climate for foreign tech firms.
• Major US Investments Announced
  • Several US technology giants have announced large-scale investments in India’s data centre ecosystem:
    • Google: Announced a $15 billion investment (October) to build a 1 GW data centre in partnership with Adani Group.
    • Microsoft: Committed $17.5 billion (December), primarily focused on AI data centres.
    • Amazon: Plans to invest $35 billion over five years in India, with a significant portion expected to support data centre expansion.
  • These investments are driven by the surging compute demand of artificial intelligence.
• India’s Data Centre Market Outlook
  • Current market size: ~$10 billion
  • Revenue in FY24: ~$1.2 billion
  • Capacity addition: 795 MW of new capacity expected by 2027; Total capacity projected to reach 1.8 GW.

A $100 Billion Opportunity for India’s Electronics Sector

• The reduction of US tariffs on Indian goods from 50% to 18% has opened the door to a major expansion of India’s electronics manufacturing sector.
• Industry estimates suggest India–US electronics trade could reach $100 billion, driven by improved market access and smoother technology flows.
• Electronics Exports Gain Momentum
  • Electronics have emerged as a key growth engine for India:
    • Exports in 2024–25: ₹3.27 lakh crore (≈ $38 billion)
    • Largest export market: United States
  • The new trade framework is expected to accelerate export growth and deepen integration with global value chains.
• Employment and Industrial Footprint
  • India’s electronics manufacturing sector:
    • Employs over 2 million workers directly
    • Is concentrated in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra
    • Supports a broad ecosystem of component suppliers, assemblers, and technology service providers

Why in news?

The Economic Survey recently flagged a worrying rise in digital addiction and screen-related mental health issues, especially among children and adolescents. Responding to these concerns, the February 1 Union Budget announced steps to strengthen India’s mental health infrastructure.

Key measures include the proposal to set up a second National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS) in north India, alongside plans to upgrade premier mental health institutions in Ranchi and Tezpur.

These steps aim to improve regional access, reduce pressure on existing facilities, and expand specialised mental healthcare services across the country.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India’s Mental Health Burden: Scale and Severity
• Mental Health Infrastructure in India: Expanding Access Beyond Hospitals
• Where Does India Fall Short on Mental Health Funding
• The Way Ahead: Shifting to Preventive and Community-Based Mental Healthcare

India’s Mental Health Burden: Scale and Severity

• Experts warn that India is facing a serious mental health crisis.
• The country accounts for nearly one-third of global cases of suicide, depression, and addiction, making mental health a major public health challenge.
• High Suicide Burden Among Youth
  • Data from the National Crime Records Bureau and the Sample Registration System under the Ministry of Home Affairs show that:
    • Suicide is among the leading causes of death for Indians aged 15–29 years.
    • Young people are particularly vulnerable due to academic pressure, unemployment, social stress, and digital addiction
• Economic Cost of Mental Illness
  • According to the World Health Organization (WHO):
    • India is expected to lose $1.03 trillion between 2012 and 2030 due to mental health conditions.
    • Losses stem from reduced productivity, healthcare costs, and premature mortality.
• Large Treatment Gap
• A major concern is the treatment gap: 70%–92% of people with mental disorders do not receive proper care.
• Key reasons include: Lack of awareness; Social stigma; Severe shortage of trained mental health professionals.
• Shortage of Mental Health Professionals
  • As per the Indian Journal of Psychiatry:
    • India has 0.75 psychiatrists per 1,00,000 people
    • The WHO recommends at least 3 psychiatrists per 1,00,000
  • This gap severely limits access to diagnosis, counselling, and treatment.
• Low Budgetary Priority
  • Although overall health spending has increased since FY2014–15, mental health has received: Only about 1% of the total health budget.
  • Limited funding has constrained infrastructure, manpower, and outreach services

Mental Health Infrastructure in India: Expanding Access Beyond Hospitals

• To meet the rising demand for mental health services, the government has integrated mental healthcare into primary healthcare under Ayushman Bharat.
• Mental health services are now part of the Comprehensive Primary Health Care package delivered through Ayushman Arogya Mandirs (Health and Wellness Centres).
• Over 1.73 lakh sub-health centres and primary health centres have been upgraded into Ayushman Arogya Mandirs
• These centres provide basic mental health screening, counselling, and referrals, reducing dependence on specialised hospitals
• Strengthening Specialist Capacity
  • To address the shortage of trained professionals, the government has expanded education and training infrastructure:
    • Over 20 Centres of Excellence sanctioned for postgraduate training in mental health
    • 47 postgraduate departments in mental health established nationwide
  • These initiatives aim to increase the availability of psychiatrists, psychologists, and mental health specialists, especially in underserved regions.
• Tele-Mental Health Support: Tele MANAS
  • India has complemented physical infrastructure with digital outreach through Tele MANAS (Tele Mental Health Assistance and Networking Across States):
    • 24×7 free mental health support via helplines 14416 or 1-800-891-4416
    • Launched on October 10, 2022
    • 53 operational cells across 36 States and Union Territories
    • Backed by 23 specialised mentoring institutes
  • Tele MANAS bridges access gaps, especially for people in remote areas or those hesitant to seek in-person care.

Where Does India Fall Short on Mental Health Funding?

• India’s mental health budget has increased from ₹683 crore in 2020–21 to about ₹1,898 crore in 2024–25.
• However, experts argue that this rise masks a deeper problem of chronic underinvestment.
• The allocation remains below 2% of the total health budget, which itself is only around 2% of India’s GDP—far short of what the scale of the mental health burden demands.
• Mismatch Between Spending and Need
  • The underinvestment becomes stark when weighed against:
    • India’s high suicide and depression burden
    • Massive treatment gaps
    • Economic losses due to untreated mental illness
  • Despite these realities, mental health continues to receive low fiscal priority.
• Overemphasis on Tertiary Institutions
  • A major concern is where the money goes. A significant portion of allocations continues to be directed toward tertiary institutions such as NIMHANS and newly established centres of excellence.
  • While important, experts argue that:
    • Tertiary institutions alone cannot mainstream mental healthcare in a country of India’s size
    • They serve a limited population and are often concentrated in urban areas
  • They stress the need for targeted funding for grassroots mental health programmes, including:
    • Community-based services
    • Early intervention models
    • Preventive and promotive mental healthcare
  • Such approaches are more effective in reaching underserved populations and reducing long-term disease burden.
• Utilisation Gap Compounds the Problem
  • Beyond low allocations, there is also a utilisation issue:
    • Funds earmarked for mental health are not fully utilised at the national level
    • Administrative bottlenecks and lack of local capacity hinder effective spending
    • Health experts argue that better utilisation requires decentralised planning and community-led models, not just increased funding.

The Way Ahead: Shifting to Preventive and Community-Based Mental Healthcare

• India urgently needs affordable access, continuity of care, and timely treatment to prevent avoidable deaths and disability from mental illness.
• Experts highlight an over-reliance on specialist-led, tertiary care, severe shortages of trained professionals, and a 95% access gap.
• The government is pivoting to a whole-of-community approach, integrating mental well-being into schools and strengthening workplace policies to address stress and burnout—signalling a shift from curative to preventive, community-based care.

Why in News?

• The United States and India have agreed upon a Framework for an Interim Trade Agreement (ITA) aimed at delivering early trade gains while negotiations continue for a comprehensive US–India Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA).
• The US-India BTA was launched in February 2025 by President Donald Trump and Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
• The framework reflects evolving geopolitical realities, particularly China’s rise, supply chain diversification, energy security concerns, and technology competition, which have injected new urgency into bilateral trade negotiations.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Nature and Scope of the Interim Agreement
• Trade, Technology and Supply Chain Cooperation
• Strategic Significance
• Key Challenges
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Nature and Scope of the Interim Agreement:

• A transitional but strategic arrangement:
  • Designed as a reciprocal and mutually beneficial trade arrangement, it is -
    • Intended to generate early trade benefits
    • Serves as a stepping stone toward a comprehensive BTA
  • The agreement signals renewed momentum in a relationship that has struggled for years over issues such as agriculture, digital trade, and market access.
• India’s commitments:
  • Tariff liberalisation and rationalisation: India will eliminate or reduce tariffs on all US industrial goods, reduce tariffs on US agricultural and food products, including dried distillers’ grains, red sorghum, tree nuts, fresh and processed fruits, soybean oil, wine and spirits.
  • Addressing non-tariff barriers (NTBs):
    • India agreed to tackle import licensing delays; standards-related restrictions; and barriers affecting medical devices, ICT goods, food and agricultural products.
    • Talks to align with US or international standards to conclude within six months.
    • Significance: Non-tariff barriers have long been contentious in WTO discussions. Their removal signals regulatory convergence.
• US commitments:
  • Tariff reductions for Indian exports:
    • The US will remove tariffs on generic pharmaceuticals; gems and diamonds; selected aircraft and aircraft parts.
    • India will receive ally-equivalent tariff treatment in certain aviation sectors, and get a preferential quota for auto parts at lower tariff rates.
    • However, the US will apply an 18% reciprocal tariff on several Indian exports including textiles, clothing, leather, footwear, plastics, chemicals, and certain machinery.
  • Relief under national security tariffs:
    • The US will lift certain tariffs imposed under national security provisions, especially in aviation sectors.
    • This is significant because national security tariffs are often invoked under domestic trade laws, and their removal indicates strategic trust.

Trade, Technology and Supply Chain Cooperation:

• Strategic economic integration:
  • India plans to purchase $500 billion worth of US goods over five years, including energy products, aircraft, precious metals, technology products, and coking coal.
  • Both sides agreed to expand trade in high-tech goods such as GPUs, and deepen cooperation in innovation, supply chains, economic security, and addressing non-market practices of third countries (implicit reference to China).
• Digital trade commitments:
  • Both countries agreed to address barriers to digital trade, committed to establishing clear and mutually beneficial digital trade rules.
  • Digital trade has been a key friction point, especially concerning data localisation, cross-border data flows, and e-commerce regulations.

Strategic Significance:

• Geopolitical drivers: China–US rivalry, supply chain realignment (“China +1” strategy), energy security, and Indo-Pacific strategic convergence.
• Economic implications: Enhanced market access for both sides, strengthening India’s position in global value chains, potential boost to manufacturing and exports, reinforcing India’s role in trusted technology supply chains.

Key Challenges:

• Agricultural sensitivities: US agricultural access may affect Indian farmers.
• Reciprocal tariffs: The US will apply a reciprocal tariff rate of 18% on many Indian goods, which may hurt labour-intensive sectors like textiles and leather.
• Pharmaceutical uncertainty: Subject to US tariff investigations.
• Digital trade disputes: Data sovereignty vs open digital markets.
• Rules of origin enforcement: Ensuring benefits accrue primarily to US and Indian producers.

Way Forward:

• Fast-track: Conclusion of the Interim Trade Agreement (ITA).
• Build: Trust through early harvest implementation.
• Protect: Sensitive sectors via calibrated tariff reduction.
• Align: Digital governance frameworks with global best practices.
• Strengthen: Institutional mechanisms for dispute resolution.
• Integrate: Trade negotiations with broader strategic cooperation (Quad, Indo-Pacific frameworks).

Conclusion:

• The India–US Interim Trade Framework represents more than a tariff adjustment exercise—it reflects a strategic recalibration of bilateral economic ties amid shifting global power dynamics.
• If implemented effectively, this framework could redefine India–US economic relations, reinforce supply chain resilience, and strengthen India’s position in the evolving global trade architecture.

Why in the News?

• The Union Budget 2026-27 significantly increased allocations for the AYUSH sector and announced major institutional and regulatory initiatives to expand its domestic and global footprint.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• AYUSH (Background, Budgetary Expansion, Strengthening Infrastructure, Impact of FTA with EU, Concerns, etc.)

Understanding the AYUSH System in India

• AYUSH refers to Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homoeopathy, India’s traditional systems of medicine that coexist with modern allopathic healthcare.
• Over the last decade, the government has sought to integrate AYUSH into the public health system while also positioning it as a source of economic growth and soft power.
• Institutionally, AYUSH functions under the Ministry of AYUSH, established in 2014.
• The sector operates through a nationwide network of AYUSH hospitals, dispensaries, teaching institutions, research councils, and regulatory bodies.
• The National AYUSH Mission (NAM) is the primary vehicle for integrating AYUSH services into primary healthcare by co-locating AYUSH facilities in existing health centres.
• India also hosts Institutes of National Importance such as the All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi, and the National Institute of Homoeopathy, Kolkata, along with research bodies like the Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences.
• Regulatory oversight is provided by the National Commission for Indian System of Medicine and the National Commission for Homoeopathy, while drug standards are set by the Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy.

Budgetary Expansion of the AYUSH Sector

• The Union Budget 2026-27 marked a sharp increase in government spending on AYUSH.
• The total allocation rose to Rs. 4,408 crore, up from Rs. 3,992 crore in 2025-26 and Rs. 2,122 crore in 2020-21.
• This reflects a long-term policy shift to mainstream traditional medicine within India’s healthcare framework.
• A major announcement was the establishment of three new All-India Institutes of Ayurveda, envisioned as centres of excellence on the lines of AIIMS.
• These institutions will combine patient care, advanced research, and high-quality medical education, aiming to standardise Ayurvedic practice nationally.
• The Budget also proposed enhanced funding for upgrading the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre in Jamnagar, signalling India’s ambition to lead global standard-setting for traditional medicine practices.

Strengthening Infrastructure, Research, and Supply Chains

• The National AYUSH Mission received a 66% hike to Rs. 1,300 crore, focusing on modernising AYUSH hospitals and dispensaries, expanding preventive healthcare, and upgrading existing facilities.
• Additional funds were earmarked for improving AYUSH pharmacies and drug-testing laboratories to address long-standing quality and safety concerns.
• A notable innovation announced was Bharat-VISTAAR, a multilingual AI-based digital assistant designed to support farmers cultivating medicinal plants.
• It will provide real-time guidance on crop quality, market prices, and export certification, strengthening the medicinal plant supply chain.

India-EU Free Trade Agreement and Global Outreach

• A key driver behind the Budget push is the India-European Union Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which has opened new opportunities for AYUSH in European markets.
• In EU countries that do not specifically regulate traditional medicine, Indian AYUSH practitioners can now offer services based on qualifications obtained in India.
• The FTA also allows Indian companies to establish wellness centres and Ayurvedic clinics across the EU with legal certainty.
• Importantly, it enables mutual recognition of certain laboratory test results and safety certifications, easing the export of AYUSH products.
• The agreement also recognises India’s Traditional Knowledge Digital Library, helping prevent biopiracy and wrongful patent claims on Indian formulations.

Concerns Around Evidence, Safety, and Regulation

• Despite the expansion, the AYUSH sector faces persistent criticism.
• Medical bodies such as the Indian Medical Association argue that many AYUSH therapies lack rigorous empirical validation through randomised controlled trials.
• Safety concerns remain, particularly regarding the presence of heavy metals like lead and mercury in some Ayurvedic formulations, which have triggered international health advisories.
• Another contentious issue is “mixopathy”, the overlap between AYUSH and allopathic practices.
• Policy decisions allowing Ayurveda practitioners to perform certain surgical procedures and prescribe allopathic drugs have led to legal disputes and professional opposition, highlighting the need for clearer regulatory boundaries.

Why in news?

US President Donald Trump announced a sharp reduction in tariffs on Indian goods from 50% to 18%, claiming that India has agreed to stop buying Russian crude oil and instead increase purchases from the US and Venezuela.

While India welcomed the trade deal, it has not confirmed any commitment to halt Russian oil imports.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India’s Official Position: Energy Security First
• Why a Complete Halt Is Unlikely?
• Russian Oil to Remain a Major Part of India’s Import Basket in the Near Term
• Replacing Russian crude with US, Venezuelan oil is difficult
• India’s Strategic and Trade Autonomy in Oil Imports

India’s Official Position: Energy Security First

• India has not publicly endorsed Trump’s claim on Russian oil.
• The MEA reiterated that energy security for 1.4 billion people remains India’s overriding priority. According to the government, India’s strategy is based on:
  • Diversification of energy sources
  • Market conditions
  • Evolving international dynamics
• No formal directive has yet been issued to Indian refiners to stop importing Russian crude.

Why a Complete Halt Is Unlikely?

• Completely stopping Russian oil imports is not feasible in the current context due to:
  • Technical challenges in quickly switching crude grades
  • Commercial constraints, including pricing and long-term contracts
  • Logistical limitations in ramping up supplies from the US and Venezuela
  • Strategic autonomy concerns in energy trade decisions
• Experts note that increasing imports from alternative suppliers is easier said than done, and cannot happen overnight.
• Strategic Autonomy and Market Realities
  • India’s energy policy has consistently aimed to balance:
    • Geopolitical pressures
    • Cost competitiveness
    • Supply reliability
  • A sudden halt to Russian oil would undermine India’s strategic autonomy and expose it to price volatility and supply risks.
  • Industry analysts expect:
    • A gradual reduction in Russian oil imports.
    • A measured increase in crude purchases from the US and other suppliers.
    • Continued emphasis on flexibility and diversification, rather than rigid alignment.
• Economic Logic: Discounts and Refining Compatibility
  • Analysts note that Russian crude remains economically critical:
    • Volumes are locked in for the next 8–10 weeks because the orders are already placed.
    • Deep discounts on Urals (Russia’s flagship crude grade)) crude relative to ICE Brent (benchmark) support margins.
    • India’s complex refining system is well-suited to Russian grades.

Russian Oil to Remain a Major Part of India’s Import Basket in the Near Term

• Indian refiners have already booked Russian crude cargoes through March and parts of April, making any abrupt cancellation impractical.
• Even if the government advises a reduction, refiners will need several months to gradually scale down purchases, given existing contracts and supply-chain constraints.
• A complete halt is especially unfeasible due to Nayara Energy, which processes about 400,000 barrels per day (bpd) and is almost entirely dependent on Russian oil.
  • Rosneft, Russia’s national oil company, is a major shareholder in Nayara Energy.
  • Nayara has been sanctioned by the European Union, while Rosneft faces US and EU sanctions.
  • These sanctions have severely limited access to alternative crude sources.
• Likely Scale of Reduction: Gradual, Not Zero
  • Energy experts broadly agree that:
    • India is unlikely to reduce Russian oil imports to zero
    • Imports could fall from an average of ~1.6 million bpd in 2025 to around 500,000 bpd in the medium term
  • Even at 500,000 bpd, Russian crude would still account for ~10% of India’s total oil imports.
• Recent Trends: Decline Already Underway
  • India’s Russian oil imports have steadily declined to a three-year low, following US sanctions on major Russian producers, including Rosneft and Lukoil.
  • According to a data:
    • Imports peaked at 2.09 million bpd in June 2025
    • Fell to 1.16 million bpd in January 2026
  • Despite the decline:
    • Russian oil accounted for 22% of India’s total imports in January 2026
    • This is lower than the 35–40%+ share seen earlier, but still significant
  • This dominance is expected to continue for several months.

Replacing Russian crude with US, Venezuelan oil is difficult

• Replacing Russian crude is theoretically possible, since before the Ukraine war, Russia accounted for less than 2% of India’s oil imports.
• However, the real challenge lies in how much and how fast supplies from the United States and Venezuela can substitute Russian volumes.
• US Oil: Cost and Compatibility Constraints
  • India has been increasing oil imports from the US, and this trend can continue if prices remain competitive. However, two key constraints exist:
    • Higher transportation costs: Shipping crude from the US to India costs more than double compared to supplies from West Asia.
    • Crude quality mismatch: Indian refineries are optimised for medium-sour crude from Russia and West Asia. US crude is lighter and sweeter, making it less suitable for some refinery configurations.
    • While Indian refineries can technically process most crude types, efficiency and output vary by grade
• Venezuelan Oil: Opportunity with Limits
  • Venezuelan crude is closer in quality to Russian oil and could be a partial substitute.
  • However, limitations remain:
    • Low production: Venezuela currently produces only about 1 million bpd
    • High competition: Much of this crude is also in demand in the US
    • Long-term constraints: Meaningfully increasing output would require years and billions of dollars in investment
  • As a result, Venezuelan oil can only partially and intermittently replace Russian volumes.

India’s Strategic and Trade Autonomy in Oil Imports

• India maintained a strong stance on strategic autonomy through most of last year, despite sustained pressure from the United States under President Donald Trump to curb Russian oil purchases.
• New Delhi was unwilling to be directed on trade partners, particularly Russia—an old and key strategic partner.
• Notably, reductions in recent months occurred only after US sanctions on Rosneft and Lukoil, not due to bilateral pressure.
• A recent statement by the MEA suggests India is unlikely to change its stance on trade autonomy. Maintaining some Russian oil volumes aligns with this position and preserves flexibility in energy sourcing.

Why in news?

The Reserve Bank of India’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) decided to keep the repo rate unchanged at 5.25%, maintaining the status quo on interest rates. As a result, bank lending and deposit rates — and EMIs on home and personal loans — are expected to remain stable.

The MPC revised India’s GDP growth projection upward to 7.4% for FY 2026 (from 7.3%) and retail inflation to 2.1% (from 2%), reflecting confidence in growth momentum alongside benign price pressures.

The committee also retained a neutral policy stance, signalling flexibility to respond to evolving domestic and global conditions. This comes shortly after India announced trade agreements with the US and the European Union, and follows the Union Budget, which shaped the broader macroeconomic context.

The pause follows a 25 basis point rate cut in December, which reduced the repo rate to its current level. With cumulative rate cuts of 125 basis points in 2025, the decision marks a breather after a phase of sustained monetary easing, as the RBI balances growth support with future policy optionality.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Why the RBI Chose to Hold Interest Rates Steady?
• Impact of RBI’s Rate Pause on Lending and Deposit Rates
• The Road Ahead: RBI’s Cautious Pause Amid Global Uncertainty

Why the RBI Chose to Hold Interest Rates Steady?

• The decision by the Reserve Bank of India to pause on rates reflects a benign inflation outlook alongside strong growth momentum.
• Domestic economic conditions remain broadly resilient, giving the MPC space to wait and watch rather than act immediately.
• Budget Measures Supporting Growth
  • RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra noted that several measures announced in the FY26 Union Budget are expected to boost economic activity.
  • These include:
    • Income tax cuts, improving household disposable income
    • GST rate rationalisation, easing cost pressures
    • Benefits of earlier RBI rate cuts, supporting credit and consumption
  • Together, these factors have strengthened the near-term growth outlook.
• External Sector: Cushion from Trade Agreements
  • Since the December policy review, India has signed four trade agreements with:
    • The United States
    • The European Union
    • Oman
    • New Zealand
  • These agreements are expected to:
    • Boost exports and investments
    • Reduce vulnerability to global uncertainties
    • Support medium- to long-term growth
  • However, the RBI flagged that global geopolitical developments and external headwinds continue to warrant close monitoring, even as the US trade deal augurs well for the economy.
• Consumption as the Main Growth Driver
  • Economic growth is being underpinned by robust consumption, projected to grow at around 7% in FY26.
  • The consumption outlook has been reinforced by:
    • Subdued inflation
    • Fiscal support measures
    • Monetary easing already delivered
  • Additionally, statistical factors, such as a low GDP deflator due to low inflation, contributed to stronger growth in the first half of the fiscal year.
• Inflation Outlook: Benign but Watched Closely
  • Headline inflation in November and December remained below the tolerance band.
  • CPI inflation projections for:
    • Q1 FY27: 4.0%
    • Q2 FY27: 4.2% (slightly revised upwards)
  • The RBI clarified that the upward revision is mainly due to higher prices of precious metals, contributing 60–70 basis points, while underlying inflation pressures remain low.

Impact of RBI’s Rate Pause on Lending and Deposit Rates

• With the repo rate unchanged, lending rates linked to external benchmarks, particularly the repo rate, are expected to remain stable in the near term.
• As a result:
  • No immediate change in EMIs for home and personal loans linked to the repo rate
  • Borrowers gain certainty over repayment obligations
• Possible Movement in MCLR-Linked Loans
  • Loans linked to the Marginal Cost of Funds-Based Lending Rate (MCLR) may still see adjustments.
  • This is because banks can revise MCLR-based rates based on:
    • Changes in funding costs
    • Liquidity conditions
    • Deposit mobilisation trends
  • Thus, MCLR-linked borrowers may experience rate changes even without a repo rate move.
• Deposit Rates to Remain Broadly Steady
  • On the deposit side:
    • Interest rates are expected to stay stable in the near term.
    • Any change would depend on sustained liquidity pressures or shifts in banks’ funding requirements.

The Road Ahead: RBI’s Cautious Pause Amid Global Uncertainty

• The Reserve Bank of India appears comfortable with a cautious, wait-and-watch stance.
• With economic growth holding firm, inflation under control, and fiscal spending providing support, there is no immediate need to alter policy rates.
• The February decision thus represents a deliberate pause rather than a shift in policy direction.
• Growth Boost from Trade Agreements
  • RBI Governor highlighted that recent and forthcoming trade agreements with the European Union and the United States are likely to sustain growth momentum over the medium term.
  • He also noted that global growth could be marginally stronger than earlier projections, supported by:
    • Rising technology investments
    • Accommodative financial conditions
    • Large-scale fiscal stimulus across major economies
• Persistent External Risks
  • Despite the positive outlook, risks remain significant:
    • Geopolitical tensions and rising trade frictions
    • Volatile crude oil prices
    • Diverging global monetary policies, as inflation remains above target in many advanced economies and central banks approach the end of easing cycles
• Fiscal–Monetary Alignment
  • With the government committed to fiscal consolidation, monetary policy is unlikely to face additional pressure.

Why in the News?

• In February 2026, the Reserve Bank of India announced a draft framework to compensate customers up to Rs. 25,000 for losses arising from small-value digital frauds, even in certain cases of user error.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Digital Payments & Fraud Risks (Background, Existing Framework, Key Features of Proposed Framework, Significance, Challenges, etc.)

Background: Growth of Digital Payments and Fraud Risks in India

• India has witnessed an unprecedented expansion in digital payments over the past decade, driven by initiatives such as UPI, Aadhaar-based authentication, and financial inclusion programmes.
• While this shift has enhanced convenience and transparency, it has also led to a rise in digital fraud cases, including phishing, OTP-based scams, unauthorised electronic transactions, and social engineering attacks.
• According to regulatory assessments, fraudsters increasingly exploit gaps in user awareness, delayed reporting, and weak authentication mechanisms.
• Senior citizens and first-time digital users are particularly vulnerable.
• This evolving risk landscape has necessitated stronger regulatory safeguards to protect customers while maintaining trust in digital payment systems.

Existing RBI Framework on Customer Liability

• The RBI first issued detailed instructions in 2017 to limit customer liability in unauthorised electronic banking transactions. These guidelines classified liability based on factors such as:

• Delay in reporting unauthorised transactions
• Negligence on the part of banks or customers
• Nature of the fraud (system failure vs. customer compromise)

• Under this regime, customers could enjoy zero or limited liability if they reported fraud promptly. However, the framework did not mandate direct compensation for small-value losses, especially in cases involving partial customer fault, such as OTP sharing under deception.
• With rapid technological changes and growing fraud sophistication, RBI reviewed the adequacy of these rules, leading to the proposed revisions.

Key Features of the Proposed RBI Compensation Framework

• The newly proposed framework seeks to introduce a structured compensation mechanism for victims of small-value digital fraud. Its major features include:

• Compensation Cap: Customers may be compensated for losses up to Rs. 25,000 per fraudulent transaction.
• Scope: The framework applies primarily to small-value digital frauds, where recovery through existing mechanisms is difficult.
• User Error Consideration: Compensation may be available even in cases where customers shared OTPs or credentials under coercion or deception, subject to conditions.
• Public Consultation: Draft instructions will be placed in the public domain to invite stakeholder feedback before finalisation.

• This approach marks a shift from a purely liability-based framework to a consumer-protection-oriented compensation model.

Additional Safety Measures for Digital Payments

• Alongside compensation, the RBI has proposed several preventive measures to reduce fraud incidence:

• Lagged Credits: Introducing time delays before crediting funds in high-risk transactions.
• Enhanced Authentication: Additional verification layers for vulnerable groups, such as senior citizens.
• Targeted Risk Profiling: Differentiated safeguards based on user behaviour and transaction patterns.

• These measures aim to balance user convenience with systemic security, especially in high-volume digital ecosystems.

Related Consumer Protection Reforms by RBI

• The compensation proposal is part of a broader regulatory push to strengthen consumer rights in financial services. The RBI has announced draft guidelines in three key areas:

• Mis-selling of Financial Products: Ensuring the suitability of third-party products sold by banks.
• Loan Recovery Practices: Harmonising rules governing recovery agents and borrower treatment.
• Customer Liability Norms: Updating rules on unauthorised electronic transactions to reflect current risks.

• Together, these reforms indicate a shift towards outcome-based consumer protection rather than procedural compliance.

Significance for India’s Digital Economy

• The proposed compensation framework is significant for several reasons:

• Trust Building: Reassures users that financial losses from fraud will not always be borne individually.
• Financial Inclusion: Encourages continued digital adoption among vulnerable populations.
• Regulatory Accountability: Places greater responsibility on banks and payment service providers to strengthen security systems.
• Global Alignment: Reflects international best practices in consumer protection for digital finance.

• For India, which aims to become a global leader in digital public infrastructure, safeguarding user confidence is critical.

Challenges and Implementation Concerns

• Despite its benefits, the framework raises certain challenges:

• Moral Hazard: Risk of reduced user caution if compensation is perceived as guaranteed.
• Operational Burden: Banks must establish clear, fast, and fair grievance redressal mechanisms.
• Fraud Classification: Differentiating genuine victims from negligent behaviour will require robust assessment protocols.

• Effective implementation will depend on clear guidelines, technological support, and coordination between banks, regulators, and law enforcement agencies.

Why in News?

• A deadly explosion in an illegally operating rat-hole coal mine in East Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, has resulted in the death of 25 miners.
• The incident has once again highlighted the persistence of illegal mining in the state despite a ban by the National Green Tribunal (NGT) and the Supreme Court.
• It raises serious concerns about regulatory enforcement, governance failure, labour safety, and disaster management preparedness.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Nature of the Incident
• Rat-Hole Mining - Structural and Environmental Concerns
• Legal and Administrative Dimensions
• Scale of the Illegal Mining Problem
• Challenges Highlighted
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Nature of the Incident:

• A dynamite explosion occurred in a rat-hole mine in the Thangkso area, a remote region with poor connectivity.
• Rescue teams comprising the NDRF, SDRF, and Special Rescue Teams retrieved multiple bodies from narrow underground tunnels.
• The mine structure included -
  • Five vertical shafts (almost 100 feet deep)
  • Each shaft branching into 2–3 narrow horizontal tunnels
  • Tunnels measuring only 2 feet high and 3 feet wide, requiring miners to crawl
• Three bodies were found 350 feet horizontally inside a rat-hole tunnel.
• Rescue operations were hampered by -
  • Water accumulation
  • Mudslides due to dripping water
  • Rockfall hazards
  • Extremely confined working spaces

Rat-Hole Mining - Structural and Environmental Concerns:

• What is rat-hole mining?
  • A primitive and hazardous coal extraction method, which involves digging narrow pits and horizontal tunnels to manually extract coal.
  • It is widely prevalent in Meghalaya due to unique land ownership patterns (community/private ownership).
• Why is it problematic?
  • Because it violates the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act).
  • It was banned by the NGT (2014) and the ban was upheld by the Supreme Court.
  • These violations leads to -
    • Severe environmental degradation
    • Acid mine drainage
    • Water contamination
    • Land instability
    • Loss of biodiversity
  • There is a complete absence of worker safety mechanisms.

Legal and Administrative Dimensions:

• Criminal action: Following the incident, a case FIR registered under charges that include culpable homicide, violation of the MMDR Act and the Explosive Substances Act. Two mine owners were arrested.
• Judicial oversight:
  • Justice (Retd) BP Katakey committee: Appointed by the Meghalaya High Court to monitor illegal coal-mining in the state since 2022 following a suo-motu PIL taken up by the court on the issue.
  • Findings: Flagged Widespread illegal mining in Meghalaya, particularly the East Jaintia Hills.
  • Meghalaya HC: “No one in the state, except the high court, is taking the issue very seriously”.

Scale of the Illegal Mining Problem:

• As per Justice Katakey Committee findings, over 22,000 illegal mine openings in East Jaintia Hills alone, and over 25,000 across Meghalaya.
• East Jaintia Hills was identified as the worst-affected district.
• Past tragedies: 2018 Ksan incident – 15 miners killed in flooding, Umpleng incident – 5 miners died.
• This indicates a pattern of systemic regulatory collapse rather than isolated accidents.

Challenges Highlighted:

• Governance deficit: Weak enforcement of NGT and Supreme Court orders. Lack of political and administrative will. Local complicity and informal protection networks.
• Terrain and accessibility: Remote location (25 km takes around 3 hours by road). Difficult terrain requiring 4WD vehicles. Slows both regulation and rescue.
• Informal labour exploitation: Migrant and economically vulnerable workers. Absence of safety nets or formal contracts. Occupational hazards without social security.
• Disaster management constraints: Hazardous confined spaces. Waterlogging and collapse risk. Inadequate early detection and monitoring systems.
• Constitutional and federal complexity: Meghalaya’s Sixth Schedule Community land ownership under Autonomous District Councils. Regulatory ambiguity exploited for illegal mining.
• Broader issues:
  • Sustainable Development vs livelihood concerns
  • Environmental governance and rule of law
  • Judicial activism vs executive inaction
  • Cooperative federalism in resource regulation
  • Disaster risk reduction in informal sectors
  • Internal security linkages (illegal mining networks and criminal economy)

Way Forward:

• Strict enforcement and monitoring: Real-time satellite surveillance of illegal mining. Independent regulatory authority for mining oversight. Strengthened coordination between State Government, Autonomous Councils, and Centre.
• Institutional accountability: Fix responsibility of district officials. Time-bound compliance reporting to High Court. Strengthen implementation of MMDR Act provisions.
• Formalisation of the mining sector: Introduce regulated, scientific, and environmentally compliant mining models. Alternative livelihood programs for affected communities. Skill development and employment diversification.
• Environmental restoration: Mine closure plans. Rehabilitation of degraded land and water bodies. Polluter Pays Principle implementation.
• Worker safety framework: Strict compliance with labour laws. Insurance and compensation mechanisms. Community awareness regarding occupational risks.

Conclusion:

• The Meghalaya rat-hole mining tragedy is not merely a mining accident—it is a stark reminder of the consequences of institutional apathy, regulatory failure, and socio-economic vulnerability.
• Despite judicial bans and repeated warnings, illegal mining continues unabated, turning preventable disasters into recurring tragedies.
• Ensuring environmental sustainability, worker safety, and accountable administration is not just a policy necessity but a constitutional obligation under Articles 21 and 48A of the Indian Constitution.
• Unless systemic reforms replace episodic reactions, such “incidents waiting to happen” will continue to claim lives.

Context

• The contemporary global order is marked by geopolitical rivalry, economic nationalism, and institutional uncertainty.
• Within this context, the recent breakthrough in trade negotiations between India and the European Union (EU) represents more than a commercial arrangement.
• The agreement reflects a deeper strategic convergence between two influential actors seeking stability and autonomy in a rapidly changing world.
• Rather than a narrow settlement of tariffs, the development signals the emergence of a partnership with the capacity to influence a multipolar international system and contribute to global stability.

Historical Background and Significance

• Negotiations between India and the EU extended over nearly twenty-five years, repeatedly encountering deadlock and delay.
• The prolonged process demonstrated the difficulty of aligning two complex economic systems with different regulatory traditions and development priorities.
• The eventual breakthrough indicates a shift in policy orientation on both sides.
• Economic incentives alone cannot explain the progress; broader political and geopolitical considerations now shape cooperation. The agreement therefore stands as a turning point in bilateral relations.

Role of Political Leadership and Trust

• Sustained diplomatic engagement created the conditions necessary for compromise.
• Frequent summits and high-level dialogue fostered trust and mutual understanding, allowing leaders to address domestic resistance.
• In India, policymakers moderated protectionism by presenting Europe as a reliable and diversified economic partner.
• In Europe, political guidance encouraged the bureaucracy to move beyond rigid negotiation frameworks.
• The willingness of leadership to invest political capital transformed a stalled negotiation into a workable agreement and deepened cooperation.

Geopolitical Drivers of the Agreement

• The global environment strongly influenced this development. Intensifying competition among major powers, economic pressures, and security challenges increased the need for diversified partnerships.
• Concerns about economic dependence and coercion encouraged both sides to pursue resilience through collaboration.
• The agreement therefore represents a pragmatic response to a changing international system and a collective attempt to safeguard security and long-term interests.

Key Features of India-EU Free Trade Agreement

• Expanding Beyond Trade: Defence and Security Cooperation
  • Durability requires moving beyond economic exchange. Defence and security collaboration offers a crucial foundation.
  • Shared interests in maritime routes and regional maritime order highlight the importance of the Indo-Pacific.
  • Joint exercises, information-sharing, and institutional arrangements can strengthen regional capacity-building and support a broader partnership.
  • Such measures elevate the relationship from economic cooperation to strategic alignment.
• Energy Partnership and Climate Cooperation
  • Energy policy creates another strong link. Europe’s commitment to decarbonisation intersects with India’s need for affordable development.
  • Collaboration in renewable technologies, green hydrogen, and modern infrastructure can produce mutual benefits while addressing climate challenges.
  • Shared projects encourage long-term economic interdependence and reinforce environmental responsibility.
• Technology and Innovation
  • Technological development represents the most transformative dimension of cooperation.
  • Global power increasingly depends on standards in technology, semiconductors, artificial intelligence, and data governance.
  • Joint initiatives in innovation and digital public infrastructure can reduce vulnerability and enhance sovereignty in emerging sectors.
  • By shaping common rules, both partners can encourage progress while safeguarding democratic principles.
• Mobility and Societal Connections
  • The movement of people strengthens institutional ties.
  • Greater mobility for students, researchers, and skilled professionals expands educational exchange and supports shared mobility and knowledge networks.
  • Addressing visa barriers and professional recognition would deepen societal links and sustain interdependence beyond government-level engagement.
• Contribution to a Multipolar World Order
  • Cooperation contributes to a broader realignment in international politics. Flexible partnerships among influential actors increasingly replace rigid alliance systems.
  • By coordinating policies and supporting development initiatives, India and the EU can promote balanced growth and reinforce democratic values across regions.
  • Their collaboration may help moderate global rivalries and support a cooperative order.

Conclusion

• The trade agreement marks the beginning of a long-term transformation rather than the end of negotiations.
• Political engagement and changing global conditions enabled the breakthrough, but lasting success depends on sustained commitment in security, energy, technology, and societal exchange.
• With continued implementation, the partnership can strengthen economic growth and international cooperation.
• The agreement therefore forms a foundation for a durable strategic relationship capable of contributing to a stable and cooperative global system.

Context

• Over three decades of international negotiations have produced agreements, conferences, and declarations promising collective action against global warming.
• Yet global emissions continue to rise and the 1.5°C target grows increasingly unattainable. The paradox of global climate governance lies not in ignorance but in insufficiency.
• The international architecture, centred on the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, provides a framework for dialogue without ensuring decisive action.
• The failure emerges from structural politics, economic priorities, and social realities that privilege short-term interests over long-term planetary stability.

Institutional Structure and the Illusion of Progress

• The United Nations process operates through recurring Conferences of the Parties under the UNFCCC.
• Participation resembles voluntary engagement rather than obligation. Countries commit rhetorically while avoiding costly measures in practice. Because decisions require consensus, every nation effectively possesses a veto.
• This design promotes agreement on language but discourages enforceable action.
• Declarations frequently contain ambitious goals, yet operational provisions remain weak.
• The system therefore produces diplomatic success without environmental change.
• Instead of collapse, governance experiences drift, institutions function, negotiations continue, but effective action remains limited.
• Agreements display aspiration without accountability, creating a cycle of negotiation rather than implementation.

The Dominant Role of Politics

• National interest consistently outweighs global urgency. Political leaders operate within short electoral cycles, whereas mitigation requires long-term commitment.
• Governments therefore attempt to minimise immediate economic costs while maintaining international legitimacy.
• Climate policy becomes an exercise in managing expectations, postponing decisions, and distributing responsibility.
• Every conference is celebrated as progress even when emission trajectories remain unchanged. Such behaviour is politically rational but environmentally insufficient.
• The logic of governance prioritises stability of power over planetary stability. Consequently, ambition appears in principles while hesitation governs outcomes, reinforcing systemic inaction.

Economic Incentives and Market Behaviour

• Economic systems reinforce political hesitation. Markets reward immediate profit, whereas climate protection requires sustained investment and restraint.
• Corporations and financiers respond to present incentives rather than future consequences.
• Future generations are not economic participants and therefore lack representation within market decision-making.
• The pursuit of economic growth intensifies the conflict. Governments depend on expansion for employment and legitimacy, making restrictions on fossil-fuel use politically risky.
• As a result, economic priorities override ecological considerations. Long-term sustainability competes with short-term returns, and market behaviour consistently favours the latter.
• The system functions according to design, but the outcome undermines planetary security.

Society and Public Engagement

• Public behaviour contributes to the problem. Citizens prioritise immediate needs, employment, food, housing, and health.
• Climate change remains an abstraction until it manifests as disaster. Without sustained public pressure, policymakers face little incentive to adopt costly reforms.
• Individuals become victims of climatic impacts rather than participants in prevention. The absence of societal urgency weakens political will and reinforces delayed response.

Science and the Politics of Uncertainty

• Scientific research has already established climatic mechanisms, projected warming pathways, and identified risk.
• The barrier is not knowledge but interpretation. Remaining scientific uncertainty is used to justify postponement, diffuse responsibility, and delay decisive policy.
• The issue has shifted from scientific inquiry to strategic calculation. Evidence exists; implementation remains limited.
• The gap between scientific clarity and political behaviour illustrates the transformation of science into an instrument within political debate.

COP30 and the Gap Between Words and Action

• Recent negotiations illustrate structural limitations. Cooperation was emphasised, yet binding emission reductions were absent.
• Finance commitments lacked timelines, and required adaptation resources remained insufficient.
• Developing countries require trillions annually, while actual flows remain far lower. The loss-and-damage mechanism was operationalised but modest in scale, and technology transfer initiatives remained largely conceptual.
• Capacity-building processes expanded without corresponding funding.
• Across policy areas, the pattern persisted: new frameworks and platforms multiplied, but measurable implementation remained limited.
• Meanwhile, global emissions reached record levels, and projected warming is expected to exceed the 1.5°C threshold in the early 2030s.
• The disparity between negotiated ambition and real-world outcomes widened further.

The Paradox of Necessity

• Despite structural weaknesses, the UNFCCC process remains indispensable. No alternative institution possesses comparable legitimacy, inclusivity, or legal framework.
• Smaller coalitions cannot substitute for a universal negotiating platform.
• Abandonment would reduce coordination rather than accelerate progress. The system is flawed yet necessary, slow yet irreplaceable.

Conclusion

• Global climate governance reflects a fundamental contradiction. Nations recognise the need for mitigation, cooperation, and justice, yet resist bearing immediate cost.
• Political systems seek power, markets seek profit, and societies seek livelihood, each operating according to its own logic.
• The result is persistent inadequacy rather than outright failure. Negotiations continue, commitments expand, and promises multiply, yet decisive implementation remains selective.
• Humanity may withdraw from agreements, but it cannot withdraw from planetary consequences.
• The planet imposes outcomes regardless of negotiation, reminding all actors that participation in the climate system is not optional.