Why in News?

The Supreme Court, while hearing the Pegasus case, said there is no issue with a country having spyware for national security, but the real concern is its use against individuals, which will be examined.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Spyware
• SC Emphasizes National Security Over Disclosure

Spyware

• Spyware is a type of malicious software (malware) designed to secretly gather data from a user’s device and transmit it to third parties without consent.
• It is often used for financial gain by advertisers, data brokers, or cybercriminals.
• Purpose and Risks
  • Spyware collects sensitive information like browsing history, financial details, and login credentials.
  • It poses serious threats by:
    • Enabling identity theft and financial fraud
    • Slowing device and network performance
    • Causing data breaches in businesses
    • Installing additional malicious software
• Common Types of Spyware
• Adware – Monitors activity to serve or sell targeted ads.
• Infostealer – Gathers specific data and chat logs.
• Keyloggers – Records every keystroke to steal usernames, passwords, and messages.
• Rootkits – Grants deep access to a system, often undetectable.
• Red Shell – Tracks user activity during PC game installations.
• System Monitors – Captures emails, websites visited, and keystrokes.
• Tracking Cookies – Follows user behavior across the web.
• Trojan Horse Virus – Delivers spyware by disguising as legitimate software.
• How Spyware Works: The 3-Step Process
  • Infiltration – Installed via apps, malicious websites, or attachments.
  • Monitoring and Data Capture – Tracks browsing, captures keystrokes, and takes screenshots.
  • Transmission or Sale – Sends stolen data to attackers or sells it on the dark web.
• Impact
  • Spyware compromises personal and business data, facilitates identity theft, and weakens cybersecurity defenses.
  • Detecting and removing spyware can be challenging due to its stealthy nature.

SC Emphasizes National Security Over Disclosure

• The Supreme Court stated that national security cannot be compromised, and there is nothing wrong with a country possessing or using spyware for security purposes.
• The bench, led by Justice Surya Kant and Justice N Kotiswar Singh, clarified that the key concern is not ownership of spyware but against whom it is deployed.
• Individual Right to Privacy Recognised
  • While declining to make the full report public, the Court acknowledged that individuals have a Constitutionally protected right to privacy.
  • It stated that people who suspect their phones were hacked deserve to know the truth, and the court would consider informing them individually.
• Petitions Alleging Government Surveillance
  • The case stems from petitions filed in 2021 by journalists, activists, and public figures.
  • They alleged that the government used Pegasus spyware, a military-grade surveillance tool made by Israel’s NSO Group, to monitor citizens.
  • Petitioners argued that the core issue remains whether the government possesses and has used Pegasus.
  • They stressed that ownership implies the potential for continued surveillance.
• Justice R V Raveendran Committee Report: No Public Disclosure
  • On demands to release the report of the SC-appointed Justice R V Raveendran committee, the bench refused, citing national security and sovereignty concerns.
    • In October 2021, the Supreme Court appointed a technical committee to investigate whether individuals' phones were hacked using Pegasus spyware.
    • The committee was supervised by Justice (retd) R.V. Raveendran, and in 2022, it submitted its findings to the court in a sealed cover.
    • In August 2022, the Supreme Court noted the committee had found no conclusive evidence of Pegasus spyware use in the phones examined.
    • Malware was detected in five devices, but its nature could not be definitively linked to Pegasus.
    • The Centre did not cooperate with the investigation, as per the report.
  • SC remarked that while individuals can be informed if their phones were targeted, the report cannot become a public debate document.

Why in News?

India and France have signed a government-to-government deal worth $7.4 billion (around ₹63,000 crore) for 26 Rafale Marine fighter jets for the Indian Navy.

Earlier, 36 Rafale jets were inducted into the Indian Air Force starting in 2021.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Naval Aviation: An Overview
• Aircraft Carrier: An Overview
• History of Carrier Aviation in India
• Why India Needs Aircraft Carriers
• How Rafale M Will Help the Indian Navy

Naval Aviation: An Overview

• Naval aviation refers to the use of military aircraft by naval forces, operating from aircraft carriers, helicopter-equipped ships, or land bases to support maritime operations.
• Specialised Aircraft and Operations
  • Naval aviation includes aircraft designed for:
    • Short takeoffs and arrested landings on carriers
    • Air-to-air combat and surface/submarine attacks
    • Maritime reconnaissance and search & rescue
    • Logistics and supply missions
• Key Roles of Naval Aviation
• Fleet Air Defence: Protects naval forces beyond the range of land-based air cover.
• Strategic Power Projection: Projects air power globally without relying on land bases.
• Anti-Surface Warfare: Targets enemy ships with air-launched weaponry.
• Support for Amphibious Warfare: Assists in marine landings and inland operations.
• Mine Countermeasures: Detects and neutralizes enemy sea mines using aerial assets.
• Importance
  • Naval aviation is vital for sea control, supporting joint naval-ground operations, and projecting power far from home bases.
  • It comprises carrier-based jets, maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial systems.

Aircraft Carrier: An Overview

• An aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a floating airbase.
• It is equipped with a full-length flight deck and hangar facilities to support, arm, deploy, and recover aircraft.
• Key Functions
  • Seaborne Air Power Projection
    • Enables naval forces to project air power far from land-based airfields, enhancing operational reach.
  • Carrier Battle Groups
    • Often the centerpiece of modern naval warfare, playing a critical role in deterrence, sea control, and achieving air superiority.
• Strategic and Tactical Capabilities
• Adaptability and Survivability: Aircraft carriers can control seas, conduct strikes, and operate across the electromagnetic spectrum and cyberspace.
• Global Presence
  • About 50 active carriers are currently in service worldwide.
  • The United States Navy leads with 11 large nuclear-powered carriers, followed by countries such as Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Russia, Spain, Thailand, and the United Kingdom.

History of Carrier Aviation in India

• India's carrier aviation began with the commissioning of INS Vikrant in 1961, marking the start of the country's naval aviation journey.
• India continues to expand its carrier fleet, with future plans for additional indigenous carriers.
• Key Aircraft Carriers in India
  • INS Vikrant (1961-1997): India’s first aircraft carrier, operational for several decades.
  • INS Viraat (1987-2017): Served the Indian Navy for 30 years after being commissioned in 1987.
  • INS Vikramaditya (Since 2013): A Russian-origin carrier, currently in service with the Indian Navy.
  • INS Vikrant (Commissioned in 2022): India’s first indigenously built aircraft carrier, joining the fleet in 2022.

Why India Needs Aircraft Carriers

• Strategic Deterrence and Power Projection
  • Aircraft carriers allow India to assert influence and maintain a favourable balance of power in the Indian Ocean, a region vital for trade, energy, and security.
• Protection of Maritime Interests
  • With over 90% of India’s trade by volume transported by sea, aircraft carriers help secure Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs), protect island territories, and deter potential threats.
• Blue Water Navy Capability
  • Carriers enable the Indian Navy to operate far from its shores, establishing India as a blue water navy capable of extended operations and rapid crisis responses.
• Continuous Operational Readiness
  • Multiple carriers ensure that at least one is always operational on each coast, even when others are undergoing maintenance or refit.
• Non-Military Roles
  • In addition to military functions, aircraft carriers are essential for Humanitarian & Disaster Relief (HADR) operations, projecting India’s soft power and providing rapid responses to regional emergencies.

How Rafale M Will Help the Indian Navy

• Enhancing Carrier-Based Fighter Fleet
  • Rafale M jets will augment the current MiG-29K fleet, joining a legacy of carrier-based fighters like Sea Hawks, Alizes, and Sea Harriers.
• Future Compatibility
  • While India is developing the Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter (TEDBF) for the next decade, the Rafale Ms will fill the capability gap in the interim with their advanced features.
• Combat-Ready and Proven
  • As a four-and-a-half-generation battle-proven aircraft, Rafale M brings superior combat performance to India's naval aviation.
• Interoperability with IAF
  • A major benefit is the commonality with Indian Air Force Rafales, allowing for joint training, shared maintenance protocols, and streamlined logistics between the Navy and the Air Force.
• Boost to Military Capability
  • The induction of Rafale M will significantly strengthen India's maritime strike power and enhance overall military readiness and effectiveness across all domains.

Why in the News?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi has said that the government is modernising the country’s education system to meet the needs of the 21st century.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Educational Reforms (Introduction, Driving Forces, Key Interventions, Research & Innovation, Global Engagement, etc.)

Introduction

• India is undergoing a significant transformation in its education landscape, with the government taking proactive steps to modernise the system in alignment with global standards and the needs of a rapidly evolving knowledge economy.
• Addressing the first-ever YUGM Innovation Conclave held at Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi, PM Modi reaffirmed the government’s commitment to creating a dynamic, inclusive, and future-ready education ecosystem.
• The centre piece of this transformation is the New Education Policy (NEP), which aims to equip India’s youth with the skills, resources, and mindset necessary to make the country a global innovation hub.

Driving Forces Behind Education Reform

• At the heart of this reform initiative is the belief that India’s future depends on its youth, and preparing them for global competitiveness is crucial.
• The government’s approach encompasses three key elements: Talent, Technology, and Temperament, which together form the trinity envisioned to drive India’s ascent on the world stage.
• The NEP, introduced in 2020 and continuously refined, has become the cornerstone of this vision.
• From curriculum redesign to technological integration, the focus is on transforming Indian classrooms, research spaces, and learning ecosystems to meet international benchmarks.

Key Interventions and Infrastructure Development

• National Curriculum Framework and School Reforms
  • The development of new textbooks and teaching-learning materials for Classes 1 to 7 under the National Curriculum Framework represents a foundational shift.
  • The framework prioritises conceptual clarity, experiential learning, and multilingual education, addressing the diversity of India's learners.
• Higher Education Expansion
  • The government has committed to increasing seats and capacity in premier institutions such as IITs, and to launching meditech courses in partnership with institutions like AIIMS.
  • These efforts aim to bridge the gap between academia and industry, especially in areas such as biomedical engineering and AI-driven healthcare.
• Digital Education Infrastructure
  • Under the PM e-Vidya initiative and the DIKSHA platform, a robust digital backbone is being developed to enable ‘One Nation, One Digital Education Infrastructure’.
  • Educational content is now being created in over 30 Indian languages and seven foreign languages, enhancing accessibility and equity across socio-economic groups.

Empowering Research and Innovation

• Research Parks and R&D Cells
  • India’s research ecosystem has witnessed significant growth. Since 2014, the number of operational research parks has grown from 3 to 9, with 13 more planned.
  • Nearly 6,000 higher education institutions now house Research and Development Cells, encouraging a research-driven academic culture.
• National Research Foundation
  • The proposed Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) will play a central role in promoting frontier research.
  • With the Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) doubling from ₹60,000 crore in 2013-14 to ₹1.25 lakh crore, India is signalling a shift from rote-based education to a discovery-driven model.
• Innovation and Commercialisation
  • To shorten the gap between idea, prototype, and product, the government is actively facilitating lab-to-market transitions.
  • This includes catalysing public-private-academic partnerships and encouraging youth-led innovation, making university campuses the new epicentres of transformative ideas.

Global Engagement and Academic Mobility

• India is not only transforming education domestically but also internationalising its institutions.
• Campuses of IIT Delhi in Abu Dhabi, IIT Madras in Tanzania, and upcoming plans for IIM Ahmedabad in Dubai signal India’s academic footprint going global.
• Simultaneously, top foreign universities are being invited to establish campuses in India, enhancing cross-border knowledge flows.

Access to World-Class Knowledge

• The ‘One Nation, One Subscription’ initiative ensures that Indian students and researchers can access top-tier research journals without institutional barriers.
• This initiative aims to democratise academic access and foster a culture of continuous learning.

India’s AI Ambitions in Education

• Aligning with the larger IndiaAI Mission, the government is also investing in AI-based educational infrastructure.
• The objective is to leverage AI not just for administrative efficiency but to personalise learning, predict skill gaps, and transform pedagogy across education levels.

Context:

• Recent terrorist attacks on tourists in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, highlight the persistent threat from Pakistan’s deep state.
• The attack is part of Pakistan's attempts to derail democratic normalcy and development in the region.

Lessons for India:

• Historical parallels:
  • America’s strategic myopia: America evacuated its personnel from the roof of its Saigon embassy via helicopter (on 30 April, 1975) and lost a proxy war in Vietnam.
  • End of soft separatism in J&K: Same year, Sheikh Abdullah returned to democratic politics in J&K (as the elected CM of J&K), ending 22 years of soft separatism.
• Modern misjudgments - Trump and Munir:
  • Trump’s proposal to “empty Gaza” (to make it a Mediterranean Florida) ignores historical lessons.
  • Pakistan Army Chief Asif Munir echoed outdated ideas - Jinnah's two-nation theory and Z.A. Bhutto’s "jugular vein" rhetoric on Kashmir. Both ignore India’s institutional strength, strategic autonomy, and economic rise.

Three Pillars of India’s Long-Term Kashmir Strategy:

• Specialisation - Targeted security operations:
  • Intelligence-driven operations led to the formation of Rashtriya Rifles (1990) and Special Operations Groups (1993).
  • Replacement of BSF with CRPF (1995) and CBI with NIA for counter-terror financing shows institutional adaptability.
• Moderation - Minimum use of force:
  • India followed a path opposite to the US's "search and destroy" in Vietnam.
  • Strategy rooted in public order with minimal resistance, echoing Subrata Mitra's “Governance by Stealth”.
  • Symbols of legitimacy: Surrender of terrorists at Hazratbal (1993), state election voting lines (2024).
• Democracy - Civil participation in conflict zones:
  • Frequent elections, civil service involvement, and respecting political diversity, even those who espoused soft separatism.
  • Reflects a deeper commitment to democratic processes versus Pakistan’s unstable governance (no PM completing a full term since 1947).

Killings Signal Pakistan’s Desperation:

• India’s evolving strategy - abrogation of Article 370, cross-border strikes, strategic autonomy, and infrastructure development (e.g., railways) - is yielding results.
• Terrorist attacks are a reaction to India’s success in integrating J&K, not a sign of weakness.

Message from Kashmir:

• Kashmiris: After the murders at Baisaran (Pahalgam, J&K), Kashmiris are on streets blaming Pakistan for the attack.
• Security forces of India:
  • 1,608 J&K police, 511 CRPF, and hundreds of army personnel’s supreme sacrifice in protecting J&K depicts that “The flag does not flutter in the wind, but with the last breath of martyrs.”
  • So, “Veer Bhogya Vasundhara” (The brave shall inherit the earth) is the symbolic message from the forces.

Conclusion - Strategic Resolve over Reaction:

• India's response must be seen not as war-mongering but as measured, courageous defence of peace.
• The world must draw lessons from India’s experience: institutional resilience, democratic depth, and calibrated security actions.

Context

• As climate change intensifies, nations are seeking sustainable solutions to reduce carbon emissions and restore ecological balance.
• For India, a rapidly developing economy with high carbon dependencies, tree plantation and carbon sequestration have emerged as indispensable tools.
• These tools are necessary not only to mitigate climate change but also to strengthen environmental resilience, industrial competitiveness, and rural livelihoods.

The Urgent Need for Afforestation and Environmental and Economic Benefits

• The Urgent Need for Afforestation
  • India’s forest and tree cover currently stands at 25.17%, significantly below the 33% target outlined in the National Forest Policy of 1988.
  • This gap is critical, especially as deforestation, urban expansion, and industrial emissions continue to strain ecological systems.
  • Forests serve as natural carbon sinks, absorbing atmospheric CO₂ and regulating climate systems.
  • The need to enhance India’s carbon sequestration potential through afforestation is urgent, not just as a climate imperative, but also as a socio-economic strategy.
• Environmental and Economic Benefits
  • Large-scale tree plantations offer multifaceted benefits.
  • Beyond absorbing greenhouse gases, they contribute to improving soil health, reducing erosion, recharging groundwater, and increasing resilience against climate-induced disasters like droughts and floods.
  • These environmental functions translate into economic value, particularly in rural areas where afforestation creates jobs in nursery management, forest restoration, and agroforestry.
  • Agroforestry, which integrates trees with crops and livestock systems, is especially promising.
  • It enhances biodiversity, boosts productivity, and diversifies income streams.
  • According to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, agroforestry practices can raise farm incomes by 20–30%, showcasing their potential for climate adaptation and rural development.

Policy Initiatives and Private Sector Involvement

• Recognising these benefits, India has rolled out several policies to accelerate afforestation.
• The National Agroforestry Policy (2014) and the Trees Outside Forests in India Program encourage private landowners and industries to undertake tree planting, reducing pressure on natural forests and restoring degraded lands.
• One flagship initiative, the Green India Mission (GIM), under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, has been instrumental in increasing forest cover and promoting sustainable forest management.
• Between 2017 and 2021, GIM contributed to a 0.56% increase in forest area, signalling modest but tangible progress.
• Corporate engagement has also grown, driven by environmental, social, and governance (ESG) goals and international pressure.
• Companies in sectors such as cement, steel, and automotive have adopted tree plantation drives as part of their carbon offset strategies.
• These efforts are not merely philanthropic; they are increasingly strategic, helping firms earn carbon credits under mechanisms like the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Global Pressures and Competitive Advantage

• India’s industrial sector faces growing international scrutiny regarding carbon intensity.
• Notably, the European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), set to take effect in 2026, will levy tariffs on carbon-intensive imports such as steel, aluminium, and cement.
• With India-EU trade hitting €124 billion in 2023, non-compliance could erode India's export competitiveness.
• Consequently, afforestation presents a cost-effective alternative for emission reduction.
• While the average price of carbon credits under the EU Emissions Trading System reached €83 per tonne in 2023, investing in domestic tree plantations allows Indian firms to offset emissions at a lower cost, while also contributing to national climate goals.

Challenges and Policy Recommendations

• Despite its promise, large-scale afforestation in India faces structural challenges. Chief among them is the lack of a robust carbon trading framework.
• To fully leverage the global carbon market, India must establish a transparent national carbon credit registry and adopt a clear regulatory framework under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.
• Furthermore, financial incentives and risk mitigation tools are necessary to encourage long-term private sector investments in forestry projects.
• Additionally, there is a need for greater community involvement.
• Empowering rural communities through training, financial support, and market linkages can ensure the sustainability and scalability of afforestation efforts.
• Local participation not only increases the success of these projects but also fosters a sense of ownership and environmental stewardship.

Conclusion

• As India aspires to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, tree plantation and carbon sequestration will remain central to its climate strategy.
• These initiatives are no longer optional; they are essential for national sustainability, economic competitiveness, and social welfare.
• The convergence of environmental policy, corporate strategy, and community action around afforestation represents a powerful pathway for India to lead in climate resilience and green development.
• The costs of inaction, ecological degradation, economic penalties, and social instability, are far too great to ignore.

Context

• India’s plastic pollution crisis has reached alarming levels, as highlighted by a recent study published in Nature, which ranks the country as the largest contributor to global plastic emissions.
• Releasing an estimated 9.3 million tonnes annually, nearly 20% of global emissions, India’s plastic waste problem is not only a reflection of consumer behaviour and systemic mismanagement but also a critical failure of monitoring, data transparency, and institutional accountability.
• Therefore, it is important to analyse the key challenges, governance failures, and potential legal and administrative solutions to India’s increasing plastic waste crisis.

The Core of the Problem: A Deepening Crisis and Data Blindness

• At the core of the problem lies a glaring mismatch between reported statistics and ground realities.
• According to the Nature study, India underestimates its per capita plastic waste generation.
• While the official figure stands at 0.12 kg per capita per day, the study suggests the actual number is closer to 0.54 kg, a more than fourfold discrepancy.
• Much of this underestimation is attributed to the exclusion of rural areas, uncollected waste, and informal recycling activities from official statistics.
• Additionally, India’s waste management infrastructure is overwhelmingly reliant on uncontrolled dumpsites, which outnumber sanitary landfills by a staggering 10:1 ratio.
• This data deficit is particularly stark in ecologically sensitive zones such as the Indian Himalayan Region, where plastic waste has begun to choke delicate mountain ecosystems.
• Despite alarming anecdotal evidence, no comprehensive or transparent methodology exists to account for either the quantity or quality of waste generated in these regions.
• Reports by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), based on data from state pollution control boards and municipal bodies, lack methodological transparency and fail to include crucial rural data.
• This omission further undermines efforts to design effective waste management strategies.

Legal Mandates and the Role of Local Governance

• The Indian legal framework does mandate local governance structures, urban municipal bodies and rural panchayats, to be the primary nodes for waste management.
• However, without accurate data and adequate infrastructure, these mandates remain largely unfulfilled.
• There is an urgent need for robust data systems that not only track the generation and composition of waste but also map the infrastructure meant to handle it, such as Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs), recycling units, sanitary landfills, and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) kiosks.
• To operationalise EPR effectively, the formation of decentralised kiosks across the country is proposed.
• These would serve as collection points for producer-importer-brand-owner (PIBO) waste and would be staffed to ensure proper segregation and redirection to appropriate recycling or disposal streams.
• While challenging, such a plan is feasible if built upon a foundation of reliable data, coordination, and technological leverage, a domain where India already has significant capability.

Judicial Activism and the Role of the Supreme Court

• The Indian judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, has increasingly recognised its role in enforcing environmental safeguards.
• In a landmark judgment on January 31, the Court ordered a remediation program to reverse environmental degradation caused by tanneries in Vellore, Tamil Nadu.
• Notably, the Court adopted the principle of continuing mandamus, which enables it to retain jurisdiction over the matter to ensure ongoing compliance.
• This verdict not only affirmed environmental protection as a constitutional obligation but also reinforced the polluter pays principle, placing absolute liability on polluters for both ecological restoration and victim compensation.
• This judicial stance presents a viable template for addressing the broader issue of waste mismanagement in India.
• Continuing mandamus could be institutionalised as a tool to enforce compliance in cases of systemic environmental degradation, especially where government action is ineffective or delayed.

The Way Forward: Towards Accountability and Sustainable Development

• India's plastic waste crisis is not merely an environmental issue but a matter of public health, ecological sustainability, and constitutional justice.
• Despite having a robust legal framework, enforcement remains weak due to bureaucratic inertia, data opacity, and institutional fragmentation.
• Bridging the gap between law and practice requires three key interventions:
• Comprehensive Data and Transparency
  • Waste generation and processing data must be systematically gathered, made public, and subjected to third-party scrutiny.
  • Geotagging of infrastructure and real-time reporting mechanisms should be prioritized.
• Strengthening Local Governance
  • Urban and rural local bodies must be provided with both financial and technical support to develop and maintain waste infrastructure.
  • Integration with PIBO systems and EPR mandates must be mandatory and verifiable.
• Legal Enforcement and Judicial Oversight
  • Courts must continue to play a proactive role in ensuring environmental compliance.
  • The use of continuing mandamus, equitable compensation, and clear accountability mechanisms will be key to translating environmental rights into real-world impact.

Conclusion

• India stands at a critical juncture, as a major plastic polluter and a global technology leader, it has both a responsibility and the capacity to tackle its waste crisis with urgency and innovation.
• The road ahead demands systemic transparency, empowered local governance, and unwavering judicial oversight.
• Only through a multi-pronged approach that combines data integrity, infrastructural investment, and legal enforcement can India hope to transform its waste management systems and set a precedent for sustainable development on the global stage.

Why in News?

Citing concerns over the erosion of state powers, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M K Stalin has set up a high-level committee led by former Supreme Court judge Justice Kurian Joseph to review Centre-State relations and suggest ways to strengthen states' constitutional rights.

Nearly 50 years ago, then CM C N Annadurai had formed a similar committee under Dr. P V Rajamannar to recommend measures for maximizing state autonomy without compromising national integrity.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rajamannar Committee's Observations on Centre-State Relations
• Renewed Push for Federalism

Rajamannar Committee's Observations on Centre-State Relations

• It noted a growing dominance of the Centre over the States, with state-specific matters increasingly controlled by the Centre, often because the same party ruled both levels of government.
• Though initiated during Annadurai’s tenure, the Rajamannar Committee report was submitted under M Karunanidhi's leadership to then PM Indira Gandhi.
• De Facto Centralisation of States
  • The committee argued that although the Constitution appeared federal, its practical implementation had reduced States to mere administrative units of the Centre.
• Constitutional Provisions Enabling Central Control
  • The report cited Articles 256, 257, and 365. These provisions gave sweeping powers to the Centre.
  • The Centre could issue directions to the States and enforce them.
  • The committee said President’s Rule was used as a drastic and unprecedented constitutional weapon.
• Key Recommendations
  • Repeal Article 356 to prevent misuse of President’s Rule.
  • Establish a robust Inter-State Council under Article 263 to resolve Centre-State differences through dialogue rather than coercion.
• Criticism of Extra-Constitutional Institutions
  • The Rajamannar Committee criticised the rise of bodies like the Planning Commission, created by an executive order and not by the Constitution.
• Central Control Through Financial Powers
  • The committee noted that discretionary grants from the Centre gave it a "whip in its hands," allowing it to control States through financial dependence.
  • It argued that this made the constitutionally mandated Finance Commission irrelevant and reduced States to "suppliants for aid" in their own areas.
• Erosion of Federal Balance
  • The report warned of a growing "Triple" threat—central planning, massive grants, and party politics—which was steadily eroding the federal structure.
• Increasing Central Interference
  • The committee observed that the Centre’s frequent involvement in State matters created the impression of an anxiety to exercise overall supervision, undermining State autonomy.
• Rethinking the Idea of a Strong Centre
  • The Rajamannar Committee challenged the notion that centralisation strengthens India.
  • It warned that by taking on too many responsibilities, the Centre risks becoming weak.
  • True strength, it argued, lies in restraint and clear focus, not in expansionism.
  • Quoting C N Annadurai’s 1967 speech, the report stressed that while the Centre must have enough powers to safeguard India’s sovereignty.
    • It should not encroach on subjects like health and education, which do not contribute to national security.

Renewed Push for Federalism

• Half a century later, the Stalin-led DMK government is once again questioning the Centre-State balance, amid disputes over NEET, GST compensation, delimitation, and language policy.
• Mandate of the New Committee
  • The newly formed committee will review the current legal framework and suggest measures to restore the rights of States within the constitutional setup.
• Uncertain Impact
  • It remains unclear if New Delhi will act on the new committee’s recommendations, as the Rajamannar Report and later reviews by the Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions were largely ignored.
• A Call for Cooperation
  • The spirit behind these efforts echoes Annadurai’s 1967 vision of strengthening Centre-State relations through mutual goodwill and understanding.

Context

• As summer intensifies across India, cities are grappling with severe water shortages, surging electricity demand, and escalating temperatures.
• Reports from metropolitan areas like Bengaluru and Hyderabad reveal a sharp increase in water tanker bookings and frequent power cuts driven by heightened air-conditioner usage.
• These annual struggles highlight a pressing question: Are Indian cities prepared to withstand climate extremes and the pressures of rapid urbanisation?

The Complexities of Urban Growth and Limitations of Current Indices

• The Complexities of Urban Growth
  • Urbanisation in India has brought economic opportunities, innovation, and growth.
  • However, it has also exacerbated pollution, congestion, and environmental degradation, disproportionately affecting the underprivileged.
  • According to the Sustainable Futures Collective’s report “Is India Ready for a Warming World?” (2025), Indian cities still have a long way to go in terms of long-term climate planning.
  • Repeated concerns raised in Parliament about the worsening urban heat island effect reinforce the stark realities on the ground.
  • As India aims to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG-11), building inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities by 2030, these issues demand immediate and sustained attention.
• Limitations of Current Indices
  • While global frameworks for measuring SDG-11 progress exist, India lacks robust, city-level tools for effective tracking.
  • NITI Aayog’s SDG Urban Index evaluates 56 cities across 77 indicators, yet its assessment of SDG-11 is limited to just four parameters: Swachh Survekshan (sanitation survey), road accident deaths, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (housing scheme), and waste treatment coverage.
  • Meanwhile, the Ease of Living Index covers 111 cities but does not provide a comprehensive evaluation of SDG-11 dimensions.
  • International indices such as Mercer’s Quality of Living Index and the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Resilient Cities Index offer valuable insights but often fail to account for India’s unique urban realities.
  • This absence of a focused, context-sensitive SDG-11 index creates a significant policy-research gap, limiting policymakers' ability to identify which cities are truly safe, sustainable, and inclusive.

A New Approach to Measuring Urban Progress

• To bridge this gap, researchers have developed four distinct indices focusing on the core pillars of SDG-11: safety, inclusivity, resilience, and sustainability.
• Ten major cities, Hyderabad, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, and Surat, were ranked using indicators drawn from United Nations urban frameworks.
• Data sources included the Census 2011, Road Transport Yearbook, Indian Forest Survey, National Crime Records Bureau, Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Family Health Survey-5, Reserve Bank of India, India Meteorological Department, and the Ola Mobility Institute’s Ease of Moving Index 2022.
• Employing the Shannon Entropy Weighting Technique from Multi-Criteria Decision-Making modelling, researchers assigned objective weights to the indicators, enhancing the reliability of the indices.
• The findings reveal striking disparities:
  • Inclusivity: Ahmedabad ranked highest, while Jaipur performed the worst.
  • Safety: Bengaluru was found to be the safest city; Kolkata ranked the lowest.
  • Sustainability: Surat led, whereas Kolkata lagged.
  • Resilience: Chennai topped the resilience index; Jaipur ranked last.
• Notably, cities that were deemed front-runners in NITI Aayog’s SDG-11 assessments performed poorly under this new, more rigorous evaluation.

Key Insights and Challenges

• These variations spotlight urgent urban challenges:
  • Inclusivity gaps show deep-rooted disparities in economic and social access, underscoring the need for equitable urban development.
  • Safety rankings highlight inconsistent urban security and law enforcement across cities.
  • Sustainability outcomes point to uneven progress in waste management, environmental planning, and pollution control.
  • Resilience disparities reveal significant deficiencies in disaster preparedness and recovery strategies.
• The Annual Survey of Indian City Systems 2023 by Janaagraha reinforces these concerns, reporting that only 16 cities have a dedicated “city sustainability plan” and only 17 have formal city resilience strategies.
• Such deficits reveal the groundwork still needed for India to achieve meaningful progress toward SDG-11.

The Road Ahead

• City-level Monitoring: Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) must adopt SDG-11 tracking frameworks, similar to the district-level mechanisms established by some states.
• Leveraging Technology: Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs) under the Smart Cities Mission should be utilised for real-time urban data collection to enhance planning and decision-making.
• Addressing Urban Poverty: With one-third of urban residents living in poverty, the reliance on outdated Census 2011 data is inadequate. A Periodic Urban Poor Quality of Living Survey at the state level is urgently needed.
• Localized Governance: Each city’s unique challenges must be addressed through localised, data-driven strategies rather than blanket national policies.

Conclusion

• Building safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Indian cities demands urgent, coordinated action backed by robust data, inclusive governance, and strategic long-term planning.
• Without addressing the multifaceted challenges outlined here, India risks falling short of its 2030 SDG-11 goals, with dire consequences for millions living in its rapidly growing urban centres.

Context

• The Office of the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha, enshrined within the Constitution of India, holds far more than ceremonial significance.
• Mandated by Article 93, it is a constitutional imperative designed to ensure the seamless functioning of the lower House of Parliament.
• However, a disturbing trend has emerged in recent years, the persistent vacancy of this vital office, posing serious questions about constitutional adherence and democratic resilience.

Constitutional Mandate and Historical Significance

• Constitutional Mandate
  • Article 93 of the Indian Constitution unequivocally demands that the House of the People shall, as soon as may be, choose two members of the House to be respectively Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
  • The language used, particularly the phrase as soon as may be, implies urgency and necessity, not discretion.
  • Furthermore, Article 94 reinforces the continuity of the Deputy Speaker’s office until resignation, removal, or disqualification.
  • Thus, the framers intended for no disruption in leadership, safeguarding the stability of parliamentary proceedings.
• Historical Significance
  • The roots of this office extend back to colonial India, when it was known as the Deputy President of the Central Legislative Assembly.
  • Sachidanand Sinha’s appointment in 1921 marked the institutional beginning of this role.
  • Post-independence, the Constituent Assembly deliberately continued this office, recognising its indispensable contribution to parliamentary democracy.
  • Notably, M.A. Ayyangar’s seamless transition to Acting Speaker following Speaker G.V. Mavalankar’s sudden demise in 1956 demonstrated the practical necessity and importance of the Deputy Speaker as a ready and capable leader.

Role and Relevance in Parliamentary Functioning

• While the Speaker is the primary presiding authority, no individual can personally oversee every minute of legislative business.
• As constitutional expert S.C. Kashyap observed, the Speaker’s responsibilities are too vast to allow for continuous chairing of sessions.
• The Deputy Speaker, therefore, plays an indispensable role in maintaining the continuity of legislative work.
• Moreover, the Deputy Speaker’s responsibilities extend beyond substitution.
• They preside over committees, oversee crucial debates, and serve as neutral arbiters during sensitive discussions.
• Once elected, the Deputy Speaker, like the Speaker, is expected to act impartially, setting aside partisan loyalties to uphold parliamentary decorum.
• An equally important convention has been the informal practice of offering the Deputy Speaker’s post to a member of the Opposition.
• Although not legally mandated, this tradition has served to develop bipartisanship, moderation, and trust across the political aisle, values critical to the health of a parliamentary democracy.

A Growing Constitutional Vacuum

• Despite the constitutional clarity and historical precedents, the office of the Deputy Speaker has remained vacant throughout the tenure of the 17th Lok Sabha (2019–2024) and, as of now, the newly constituted 18th Lok Sabha as well.
• This is an unprecedented dereliction. Though the Constitution does not impose a strict timeline, interpreting "as soon as may be" to permit years-long delay is a distortion of constitutional intent.
• The absence of a Deputy Speaker centralises procedural authority in the hands of the ruling establishment, disrupting the delicate institutional balance envisioned by the framers.
• In events of sudden crises, such as the resignation, incapacitation, or death of the Speaker, the lack of a designated second-in-command could cause confusion and paralyze the House’s functioning.
• Additionally, the failure to uphold the tradition of offering the office to the Opposition undermines the spirit of consensus-driven politics and erodes democratic goodwill.
• It signals not mere oversight but an active sidelining of constitutional morality and parliamentary conventions.

The Way Forward: Towards Legislative Reform and Democratic Renewal

• This prolonged vacancy invites the urgent question: should the Constitution be amended to introduce a strict deadline for the election of the Deputy Speaker?
• For instance, mandating that the post be filled within 60 days of the first sitting of a new Lok Sabha could reinforce compliance and ensure continuity.
• Alternatively, a statutory intervention could empower the President, upon advice from the Prime Minister or Speaker, to initiate the election process if the House fails to act within a stipulated time frame.
• Either measure would close the dangerous loophole of indefinite delay that currently undermines institutional integrity.
• Ultimately, the Office of the Deputy Speaker is neither symbolic nor dispensable.
• It is a constitutional safeguard, a critical cog in the machinery of India’s parliamentary democracy.
• Neglecting it not only violates the explicit provisions of the Constitution but also diminishes the spirit of democratic resilience that underpins the Indian Republic.

Conclusion

• The election of a Deputy Speaker must no longer be treated as a procedural afterthought.
• It is a litmus test of Parliament’s commitment to rule-based governance, institutional robustness, and constitutional fidelity.
• At a time when democratic institutions globally are under stress, India’s Parliament must lead by example, by reaffirming its respect for constitutional norms and promptly restoring the dignity and functionality of the Office of the Deputy Speaker.
• The Constitution demands it. Democracy deserves it. The nation awaits it.

Why in the News?

Recently, Pope Francis died at the age of 88 at Domus Sanctae Marthae in Vatican City.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Papal Conclave (Background, Governing Rules, Political Divisions, Power Dynamics, Key Issues, etc.)

Introduction

• The Catholic Church has entered a historic moment with the passing of Pope Francis.
• The Church now stands in the sede vacante period, the interregnum until a new Pope is elected.
• At the heart of this transition is the Papal Conclave, an ancient, deeply spiritual, yet inherently political process.
• Governed by strict rules under the apostolic constitution Universi Dominici Gregis (UDG), the Conclave blends ritual, secrecy, diplomacy, and strategic negotiation to determine the next leader of the global Catholic community.

Governing Rules and Procedures of the Conclave

• The Conclave’s procedures are strictly dictated by UDG, emphasizing complete secrecy and isolation within Vatican City to minimize external influence.
  • Only cardinals under 80 years of age are eligible to vote.
  • Voting requires a two-thirds majority, necessitating broad consensus and preventing narrow factional control.
  • Despite being barred from voting, senior cardinals (over 80) still participate in pre-Conclave deliberations, potentially influencing the electors.
• Behind the locked doors of the Sistine Chapel, alliances are built, negotiations unfold, and influence is wielded through respected figures known as the 'great electors'.
• The secrecy ensures that decisions are made based on conscience, away from public or political pressure.

Political Divisions within the College of Cardinals

• The College of Cardinals is notably divided, largely reflecting debates over Pope Francis's reformist legacy and the Church’s future direction. Two broad camps emerge:
• Reformists/Progressives:
  • Support Pope Francis’s emphasis on pastoral theology over rigid doctrine.
  • Advocate for social justice, climate action, migration rights, and greater inclusion of women and LGBTQ+ Catholics.
• Conservatives/Traditionalists:
  • Stress liturgical tradition, doctrinal clarity, and a return to pre-Francis norms.
  • Seek to reaffirm established moral teachings and resist perceived doctrinal dilution.
• However, these divisions are nuanced. Many cardinals from the Global South, Africa, Asia, and Latin America, combine social conservatism (e.g., opposition to same-sex blessings like the Fiducia Supplicans) with a strong commitment to social justice and environmental advocacy, making their voting behaviour less predictable.

Geographical Shifts in Power Dynamics

• Pope Francis deliberately altered the traditional European dominance in the College of Cardinals:
  • Europeans now constitute only about 39.3% of the electors, down from over 50% in 2013.
  • Asia-Pacific represents about 17%, Latin America 15.6%, and Africa 13.3%.
• This diversification reflects the global nature of Catholicism and introduces new political complexities.
• Cardinals from the Global South, shaped by poverty, migration, and interreligious dynamics, will likely influence the focus of the Conclave toward broader global challenges rather than traditional European concerns.
• The shrinking European share and growing southern representation increase the possibility of a non-European Pope, and make cross-regional coalition-building essential to reach the two-thirds voting threshold.

Key Issues Likely to Shape the Conclave Deliberations

• Several pressing theological and social issues are expected to dominate discussions:
  • Synodality: Pope Francis’s project to promote a more consultative Church faces uncertain prospects, with some seeing it as renewal, others as a threat to hierarchical authority.
  • Handling of LGBTQ+ Issues: The backlash to Fiducia Supplicans (allowing blessings for same-sex couples) highlights tensions between pastoral outreach and doctrinal purity.
  • Role of Women: Calls for greater inclusion, including possibilities like women deacons, are gaining momentum.
  • Clerical Celibacy and Bioethics: Sensitive discussions on evolving traditional stances are expected.
  • Sexual Abuse Crisis: Despite reforms like Vos Estis Lux Mundi, concerns about enforcement and accountability persist, making transparency and survivor support key litmus tests for candidates.
  • Geopolitical and Internal Reforms: The next Pope must address international conflicts (e.g., Ukraine, Gaza), navigate relations with powers like China (especially regarding the controversial Vatican-China deal), and continue internal financial reforms after scandals like the London property case.

The Unpredictability of the Outcome

• Unlike previous Conclaves where front-runners were clear, the 2025 Conclave is marked by unpredictability:
  • The diverse composition of cardinals, many unfamiliar with each other, adds complexity.
  • The secrecy of the proceedings ensures that real alliances and shifts remain invisible until the white smoke announces the decision.
  • The traditional Vatican saying, "He who enters the Conclave as Pope, leaves it as a cardinal," reflects the uncertainty, often, unexpected candidates emerge as compromise choices acceptable to various factions.
• The final choice will be a product of political manoeuvring, individual discernment, and, for believers, divine guidance within the sacred walls of the Sistine Chapel.

Why in News?

The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) has notified the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) as an authority under the Income Tax (IT) Act, 1961.

This grants NMCG income tax exemptions, aiding its functioning under the Namami Gange Programme.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Namami Gange Programme
• Recent Developments
• Background and Legal Transition of NMCG
• Income Tax Issues Related to NMCG

Namami Gange Programme:

• It is an integrated conservation mission, approved as ‘Flagship Programme’ by the Union Government in 2014 with budget outlay of Rs.20,000 Crores.
• It is administered by the Ministry of Jal Shakti's Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, to accomplish the twin objectives of -
  • Effective abatement of pollution,
  • Conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
• The program would be implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state counterpart organisations i.e., State Program Management Groups (SPMGs).
  • NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council (NGC), which replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority.
  • NGC was created in 2016 under the River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and Management) Authorities Order, 2016.
  • NGC oversees efforts to clean and rejuvenate the Ganga River, and is headed by the PM.
• In order to implement the programme, a three-tier mechanism has been proposed for project monitoring comprising of:
  • A high-level task force chaired by Cabinet Secretary assisted by NMCG at the national level,
  • State level committee chaired by Chief Secretary assisted by SPMG at the state level, and
  • District level committee chaired by the District Magistrate.
• Its implementation has been divided into -
  • Entry-Level Activities (for immediate visible impact),
  • Medium-Term Activities (to be implemented within 5 years of time frame) and
  • Long-Term Activities (to be implemented within 10 years).

Recent Developments:

• Legal basis of the CBDT notification:
  • Clause 46A of Section 10, IT Act, 1961: Exemption for income of bodies constituted under a Central/State Act for specified purposes. NMCG was constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Effective from: Assessment Year (AY) 2024-25.
• Condition: NMCG must continue as an authority under the Environment (Protection) Act with relevant purposes.
• Significance: It ensures financial autonomy and operational efficiency for NMCG, crucial for the effective execution of the Namami Gange Programme.

Background and Legal Transition of NMCG:

• Initial status: Registered as a society (August 12, 2011) under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
• Upgradation: Declared an ‘authority’ (October 7, 2016) under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Technical issue: Despite this transition, PAN status continued as Association of Persons (AOP), attracting scrutiny and tax demands.

Income Tax Issues Related to NMCG:

• Tax demands: NMCG faced income tax demands totaling ₹243.74 crore.
• Condonation by CBDT:
  • Allowed delayed filing of revised returns for the three assessment years.
  • Enables NMCG to claim tax exemptions retrospectively.
• Reason for relief: Jal Shakti Ministry intervened with the Ministry of Finance.

Why in News?

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has released the Draft Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025.

These rules set emission reduction targets for "obligated entities" in energy-intensive sectors and establish a compliance mechanism under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023.

The CCTS aims to enable carbon credit trading to reduce emissions and support India’s climate goals under the 2015 Paris Agreement.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
• Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI)
• Summary of Draft GEI Target Rules
• Draft Rules Tie into India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

• GHGs are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to the "greenhouse effect" and raising Earth's surface temperature.
• The five most abundant GHGs are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
• Other GHGs include synthetic gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).

Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI)

• GEI refers to the amount of GHGs emitted per unit of product output, such as emissions per tonne of cement, aluminium, or paper produced.
• Definitions under the Draft Rules
  • GEI Definition: The Draft Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025, define GEI as "greenhouse gases emission intensity in tCO₂e/ equivalent output or product."
  • tCO₂e Meaning: tCO₂e (tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent) is the standard unit used to measure the warming impact of all GHGs.

Summary of Draft GEI Target Rules

• Baseline Emissions & Reduction Targets
  • Establishes 2023-24 as the baseline year for emissions.
  • Gradual GHG reduction targets set for 2025-26 and 2026-27.
  • Part of India's Carbon Credits Trading Scheme, 2023.
• Industries & Entities Covered
  • Applies to energy-intensive industries:
    • Aluminium – 13 plants
    • Cement – 186 plants
    • Pulp & Paper – 53 plants
    • Chlor-Alkali – 30 plants
  • Total of 282 industrial units affected.
• Major Companies Assigned Targets
  • Includes leading corporations such as:
    • Vedanta, Hindalco, Bharat Aluminium, SW Cement, Ultratech, Nalco, JK Cement, Dalmia Cement, Shree Cement, Grasim Industries, and JK Paper.
• Compliance & Penalties
  • Rules define compliance mechanisms for industries.
  • Penalties prescribed for non-compliance with reduction targets.

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) 2023 and Its Importance

• Foundation: The PAT Scheme (Since 2012)
  • PAT (Perform, Achieve, Trade) was launched in 2012 to enhance energy efficiency.
  • It set energy consumption reduction targets for selected energy-intensive industries.
  • Companies achieving more than their targets earned Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), which could be traded with those who underperformed.
• Evolution: Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023
  • CCTS builds upon the PAT scheme, expanding the focus from energy efficiency to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction.
  • It introduces GHG emissions intensity (GEI) reduction targets specific to industries.
• Why Industry-Specific Targets Matter
  • Critical to achieving India’s climate goals and low-carbon growth.
  • Helps industries reduce, remove, or avoid GHG emissions.
  • Example: Cement plants can lower emissions by using biomass instead of coal or adopting energy-efficient kilns.
• Alignment with International Commitments
  • Supports India’s Paris Agreement pledge:
    • Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels).
    • Encourages the adoption of sustainable and advanced technologies in high-emission sectors.
• Key Objective
  • Drive systemic change in emission-heavy industries by integrating climate action with industrial growth.

How do these Draft Rules Tie into India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme?

• Framework of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS)
  • CCTS establishes a system for generating, trading, and utilizing carbon credit certificates.
  • Inspired by Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, which allowed trading of unused emission units among countries.
• Role of GEI Targets in Carbon Credit Generation
  • GHG Emission Intensity (GEI) targets clearly define goals for industries.
  • Industries must prepare action plans to achieve these targets.
  • Carbon credits are awarded to industries that reduce their emissions intensity.
• Trading and Compliance Mechanism
  • The trade mainly revolves around carbon dioxide, the principal GHG.
  • Carbon credits are traded on the Indian Carbon Market platform.
  • Oversight by: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Union Ministry of Power.
  • Industries falling short must either:
    • Buy credits to cover the gap, or
    • Face penalties imposed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
• Incentives for Industries
• Availability of carbon credits motivates industries to decarbonize.
• Resource-rich industries can adopt clean technologies and profit from surplus credits.
• Resource-constrained industries can transition gradually by purchasing credits.
• Global Context
  • Similar carbon credit markets have been operational: Europe since 2005; China since 2021.

Why in the News?

Funds spent by listed companies on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) rose by 16% to Rs 17,967 crore in 2023-24, in comparison to 2022-23.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About CSR (Meaning, Objective, etc.)
• CSR Spending in FY24 (Statistics, Leading Contributors, Sectoral Allocation, Trends, etc.)

About Corporate Social Responsibility:

• CSR has become a central pillar of India's corporate governance framework.
• Enacted through the Companies Act, 2013 and enforced from April 2014, CSR mandates eligible companies to spend at least 2% of their average net profits over the preceding three years on socially impactful initiatives.
• Companies with a net worth of ₹500 crore or more, turnover of ₹1,000 crore or more, or net profit of ₹5 crore or more are obligated to undertake CSR activities.
• The intent behind the CSR mandate is twofold:
  • to ensure that businesses contribute meaningfully to society, and
  • to embed social responsibility as an integral part of corporate strategy.
• Over the years, CSR in India has expanded to include areas like education, healthcare, rural development, environmental sustainability, and cultural heritage.
• While compliance levels have consistently improved, recent trends suggest an evolving landscape where corporates are increasingly aligning their CSR strategies with sustainable development goals and national priorities.

Rise in CSR Spending in FY24

• In the financial year 2023-24, India witnessed a 16% surge in CSR spending, with listed companies investing a total of ₹17,967 crore, up from ₹15,524 crore in FY23​​.
• This significant rise mirrors the 18% increase in average three-year net profits, which grew to ₹9.62 lakh crore from ₹8.14 lakh crore​.
• As per the CSR mandate, companies were required to spend ₹18,309 crore.
• The slight shortfall between required and actual spending was due to ₹2,329 crore being transferred to Unspent CSR Accounts for future utilization​.
• This increase in spending came after three years of relatively flat growth, signalling a strong corporate commitment towards social welfare, driven by regulatory push and profit expansion.

Sectoral Allocation of CSR Funds

• CSR funds were predominantly directed towards key societal needs:

• Education remained the top priority, attracting ₹1,104 crore.
• Healthcare followed closely, receiving ₹720 crore​​.

• Notably, spending on environmental sustainability saw the steepest increase, with a 54% growth compared to the previous year.
• Meanwhile, areas like slum development (-72%), rural development (-59%), and armed forces veterans’ welfare (-52%) witnessed significant declines​.
• This sectoral shift indicates a growing awareness and responsiveness among corporates towards environmental challenges and the sustainable development agenda.

Trends in Compliance and Governance

• Corporate compliance with CSR norms continued to remain robust:
  • 98% of the 1,394 eligible companies fulfilled their CSR obligations​.
  • Around 49% of the companies exceeded their mandated spending, reflecting a proactive approach.
  • Only 259 companies fell short of the spending requirement, mainly due to multi-year project planning​.
  • Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) also enhanced their contribution, with 66 PSUs spending ₹3,717 crore, marking a 19% increase from the previous year​.
• Governance around CSR has also improved. Companies spending over ₹50 lakh must form a CSR Committee comprising at least three directors, including one independent director.
• Among the 1,028 companies mandated to set up committees, 990 had fully compliant structures​.

Call for Revising CSR Thresholds

• Given the significant rise in average corporate profits over past decade, experts have called for a revision of CSR eligibility thresholds.
• The original thresholds were set when the average three-year net profit was ₹4.18 lakh crore; now it has more than doubled to ₹9.62 lakh crore.
• Revising these limits would help focus CSR mandates on larger entities and ease regulatory burdens on smaller companies.

Future Outlook

• As India's economy grows, CSR is expected to evolve from being a compliance obligation to a strategic pillar for brand building, social impact, and stakeholder trust.
• Emerging focus areas are likely to include:
  • Climate change mitigation
  • Digital inclusion
  • Skilling for the future workforce
  • Healthcare innovations
• Greater integration of CSR initiatives with corporate business strategies and national development programs will further enhance their effectiveness and impact.

Context:

• The growing environmental, economic, and governance challenges facing the world's oceans, emphasizing the urgent need for multilateral action to protect marine ecosystems.
• India's blue economy aspirations, the upcoming UN Ocean Conference (UNOC3), and global efforts like the BBNJ agreement (also known as the High Seas Treaty under the UN Convention) aims to ensure sustainable use and conservation of ocean resources.

Significance of the Oceans:

• Ocean - A global commons: Oceans feed, protect, and sustain human life. They are crucial for trade, sustainable energy, scientific knowledge, and livelihoods.
• India’s oceanic legacy:
  • India has a 7,517 km long coastline, impacting daily life, economy, and environment.
  • The Indian government’s Vision 2030 highlights the blue economy as one of the 10 core dimensions of growth.

Challenges Facing the Oceans:

• Environmental and economic threats:
  • Pollution: Over 8 million tons of plastic enter oceans annually (Science journal).
  • Overfishing: Over one-third of fish stocks are overfished.
  • Climate change effects: Ocean acidification, rising sea levels, marine ecosystem destruction.
• Governance and funding gaps:
  • Lack of global governance: No binding international law for vast areas, particularly the high seas.
  • Inadequate funding: Insufficient financial support for ocean preservation and sustainable use.

UNOC3 - A Historic Opportunity 10 Years After Paris Agreement (COP21):

• Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3):
  • Host: To be held from June 9–13, 2025, in Nice (France), and will be co-hosted by France and Costa Rica.
  • Participants: Around 100 heads of states, thousands of scientists, researchers, activists.
• Objectives: Operational and action-oriented discussions on focus areas:
  • Governance
  • Financing
  • Knowledge enhancement
• Nice ocean agreements: Like the Paris agreement (which established a binding global framework to limit climate change), it can form an International Pact aligned with UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 14 (Life Below Water).

BBNJ Agreement - Marine Biodiversity Protection:

• Full form: Agreement on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction.
• Need for ratification: Requires 60 countries to ratify for enforcement.
• Purpose:
  • Governance of high seas (>60% of ocean).
  • Combat hydrocarbon pollution, illegal fishing, endangered species capture.

Critical Actions for Ocean Protection:

• Financing the sustainable blue economy:
  • Public-private partnership (PPP) investments required.
  • Ensure marine resource regeneration for continued economic benefits.
• Enhancing ocean knowledge:
  • Current gap: We know more about the Moon and Mars than our own oceans.
  • Need:
    • Mobilizing science, innovation, education.
    • Greater public awareness and scientific exploration.

India's Role and Initiatives:

• Festival of ideas - "Not in My Ocean":
  • Organised by: It will be organised by France across India (Delhi, Chennai, Puducherry, Goa).
  • Activities: Exhibitions, film screenings, workshops, expert discussions.
• Blue talks:
  • Collaboration: Ministry of Earth Sciences, Embassy of Costa Rica, Indian institutions will hold “Blue Talks” in Delhi.
  • Purpose: Develop India's recommendations for UNOC3.

Conclusion - Oceans, A Universal Bond:

• Oceans are essential for climate resilience, food security, economic prosperity, and biodiversity.
• Collective multilateral action is crucial amidst challenges to multilateralism.
• UNOC3 represents a watershed moment for securing the future of oceans and humanity.

Context

• India’s economic ascent has been accompanied by intensified discussions regarding its arbitration framework’s potential to contribute meaningfully to the country’s commercial growth.
• As cross-border and domestic commerce flourish, the inevitability of commercial disputes has become evident.
• However, India’s traditional court-litigation system, burdened by overwhelming caseloads and inefficiency, struggles to meet the demands of a rapidly evolving economic landscape.
• These discussions often highlight legislative reforms and judicial restraint but overlook a crucial factor, the role of arbitrators, the most significant stakeholders in the arbitration ecosystem.

The Importance of Human Capital in Arbitration

• The success of any legal or dispute-resolution mechanism is determined not only by its theoretical or structural framework but also by the quality of its human capital.
• In the case of Indian arbitration, this human capital encompasses a community of arbitration lawyers and, even more crucially, arbitrators themselves, who serve as decision-makers in the process.
• The credibility and legitimacy of Indian arbitration are largely dependent on two critical parameters: the efficient conduct of arbitral proceedings and the quality of arbitral awards.
• In both aspects, the arbitrator’s role is central.
• While arbitration lawyers significantly influence proceedings, it is the arbitrators who ultimately govern procedural rules, set timelines, resolve procedural disputes, and penalise improper conduct.
• Their decisions, the arbitral awards, are the final products that parties may choose to accept or challenge in courts worldwide.
• Thus, arbitrators form the backbone of India’s arbitration environment and are essential to its success on the global stage.

The Neglected Discussion in Indian Arbitration: Building Elite Indian Arbitrators

• Despite their pivotal role, arbitrators rarely feature in the mainstream discourse on improving Indian arbitration.
• While numerous initiatives focus on expanding the arbitration bar, comparable efforts to strengthen the arbitration bench are notably absent.
• This omission is particularly concerning in light of observations by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud, the former Chief Justice of India, who recently questioned the absence of Indian arbitrators in purely international disputes.
• The marginalisation of Indian arbitrators on the global stage stems from a deep-rooted trend: the identification of elite Indian arbitrators primarily with retired judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts.
• It is a common practice in India, especially for high-value disputes, to prefer retired judges as arbitrators, assuming that their judicial experience naturally ensures procedural efficiency and well-reasoned awards.
• However, this assumption has been increasingly challenged.
• In June 2024, guidelines issued by the Ministry of Finance painted a grim picture of arbitration proceedings in India, highlighting their resemblance to protracted court procedures, their inefficiency, and the frequent setting aside of poorly reasoned awards.
• Clearly, judicial experience alone does not automatically translate into effective arbitration.
• The skills required to manage arbitral proceedings and deliver high-quality awards differ substantially from those needed in traditional courtroom litigation.

Requirement to Become a Proficient Arbitrator

• Skills Beyond the Courtroom
  • The transition from a judicial to an arbitral mindset demands a reorientation of skills and approaches.
  • A proficient arbitrator must be not only legally sound but also an adept manager of proceedings, balancing procedural certainty with innovation and flexibility, hallmarks of modern arbitration.
  • Unlike litigation, where rigid rules of civil procedure and evidence dominate, international arbitration demands familiarity with best practices that are often more flexible, efficient, and party-centric.
• Ability to Collaborate with Diverse Legal Systems
  • Additionally, in international settings, arbitrators often collaborate with colleagues from diverse legal systems and cultural backgrounds.
  • Successfully navigating such multi-national panels requires refined soft skills, including negotiation, persuasion, and cross-cultural sensitivity, competencies not automatically imparted through judicial service.
• Specialised Skills in Evidence Management
  • Finally, the drafting of an arbitral award demands a different methodology compared to writing a court judgment.
  • Arbitral awards typically involve a detailed examination of extensive documentary evidence, expert and fact-witness testimony, and sophisticated financial analysis.
  • Arbitrators must, therefore, possess specialised skills in evidence management, fact-finding, and damage quantification, areas that require dedicated training.

The Way Forward

• Diversification
  • First, the pool of Indian arbitrators must be diversified beyond the traditional cadre of advocates and retired judges.
  • Specialists from fields such as finance, engineering, international trade, and technology — who possess arbitration-specific expertise, must be encouraged to enter the field.
  • A broader base of arbitrators with diverse backgrounds would enrich decision-making and ensure more sophisticated, well-rounded outcomes.
• Structured Training
  • Second, rigorous and structured training programs must be institutionalised.
  • Prospective arbitrators should undergo comprehensive certification courses, practical workshops, and join professional arbitration associations to build a deeper understanding of both substantive and procedural aspects of arbitration.
  • Such programs would promote not just skill development but also a cultural shift, positioning arbitration as a first-choice career path rather than a secondary option post-retirement or post-litigation.

Conclusion

• The promise of Indian arbitration lies not only in legislative reforms or judicial restraint but significantly in the strengthening of its human capital, the arbitrators.
• By expanding and professionalising the arbitration community, India can move beyond traditional frameworks and truly establish itself as a global arbitration destination.
• A vibrant, diverse, and rigorously trained group of Indian arbitrators will not only enhance domestic confidence in arbitration but also elevate India’s standing on the international arbitration stage.

Context

• In recent years, democracies across the Western world have faced an escalating crisis.
• Marked by deepening political polarisation, growing mistrust in democratic institutions, and the rise of populism, these societies are increasingly turning inward.
• This phenomenon, although alarming, was foreseen in economic theory.
• Economist Dani Rodrik’s political trilemma, proposed over two decades ago, provides a powerful lens through which to understand these unfolding developments.

Rodrik’s Political Trilemma: Theoretical Foundations

• In his influential 2000 paper, How Far Will International Economic Integration Go? Rodrik highlighted three objectives of countries.
• Rodrik argued that countries could, at most, achieve two of the following three objectives simultaneously: deep international economic integration (globalisation), national sovereignty, and mass politics (popular democracy).
• Pursuing all three together, Rodrik contended, would eventually result in unsustainable tensions.
• Despite the strong rhetoric around globalisation, he observed that national barriers to free trade and economic integration had persisted due to transaction costs and protectionist policies, suggesting an inherent limit to how globalised the world could become.
• Rodrik’s once-theoretical framework is now being visibly manifested in the political and economic struggles of Western democracies.
• The ongoing crisis highlights the contradictions between the three goals and the grave consequences of attempting to balance them all.

From Theory to Reality: The Western Experience

• Reality of Globalisation
  • The first configuration Rodrik identifies is the combination of globalisation and popular democracy, achieved at the cost of national sovereignty. The European Union (EU) exemplifies this model.
  • EU member states have ceded significant control over monetary policy, trade, and migration to a supranational body to benefit from economic integration.
  • While the EU has created a vast single market and boasts impressive economic output, it has also generated resentment among segments of the population.
  • Many citizens feel economically marginalised or culturally threatened by policies that facilitate free movement and open borders.
  • This discontent has fuelled nationalist backlashes, most dramatically witnessed in Brexit and the rise of far-right political parties across Europe, showcasing the fragility of this configuration.
• The Issue of National Sovereignty
  • The second option involves maintaining globalisation and national sovereignty while sidelining mass politics.
  • This results in governance by technocratic institutions insulated from public opinion. Central banks and regulatory authorities often operate independently to prioritise market confidence over popular welfare.
  • However, this arrangement risks both democratic disengagement and national sovereignty, as global markets exert significant influence.
  • The experience of countries like Kenya, where IMF-imposed austerity measures provoked widespread public anger, illustrates the societal tensions that arise when global financial interests override domestic priorities.
• Bretton Woods Compromise
  • The third path, known as the Bretton Woods compromise, preserves national sovereignty and democracy while limiting globalisation.
  • Countries like India have adopted protectionist policies and industrial strategies to foster domestic growth while regulating foreign investment and influence.
  • China and the East Asian Tigers pursued controlled globalisation, allowing selective integration while maintaining political control.
  • While this model has delivered robust economic growth, it often comes at the cost of individual freedoms and political dissent, presenting a different set of trade-offs.

The Western Crisis: An Unattainable Balance

• The predicament facing Western democracies stems from a persistent attempt to achieve all three goals simultaneously.
• For decades, policymakers believed that open markets, national self-determination, and vibrant democracy could coexist harmoniously.
• However, globalisation has produced uneven outcomes, creating winners and losers within societies.
• Manufacturing industries in the U.S., the U.K., and Europe have declined, leaving once-thriving communities economically vulnerable.
• These economic dislocations have been fertile ground for populist leaders like Donald Trump, Geert Wilders, and Viktor Orbán, who capitalised on grievances against globalisation, immigration, and political elites.
• As traditional political parties and institutions lose public trust, populist movements advocate protectionism, tighter immigration controls, and disengagement from global cooperative efforts such as climate change initiatives.
• In doing so, they offer a nationalist alternative but further deepen societal divisions and threaten democratic norms. 

The Way Forward: The Urgent Need for a New Strategy

• Rodrik’s trilemma remains profoundly relevant today: nations cannot simultaneously sustain deep globalisation, full national sovereignty, and mass democracy.
• Without acknowledging and addressing the trade-offs, countries risk prolonged social unrest and economic decline.
• Moving forward, Western democracies must strive to ensure that the benefits of globalisation are more evenly distributed and that democratic institutions are revitalised to serve all citizens, not just the globalised elite.

Conclusion

• Revitalisation democratic institutions will require much more than populist rhetoric or the wholesale dismantling of government structures.
• Instead, it calls for thoughtful reforms aimed at strengthening social safety nets, empowering local communities, and creating inclusive economic policies that bridge the gap between the global and the local.
• Only by doing so can the Western world hope to navigate the challenges of Rodrik’s trilemma and secure a stable, prosperous, and democratic future.

Why in News?

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has predicted above-normal rainfall of 105% of the long-period average (LPA) for the June-September southwest monsoon season.

Key drivers like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) are favorable for the monsoon.

 The April 15 forecast is the first of the year, with an updated forecast expected in the last week of May. Long-range forecasts can extend from 30 days to two years.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Early Efforts in Monsoon Forecasting
• Post-Independence Challenges and the IMD’s Early Forecasting Models
• Recent Improvements in Monsoon Forecasting

Early Efforts in Monsoon Forecasting

• A systematic effort to forecast monsoon rainfall began in 1877, following the establishment of the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in 1875.
• The impetus for this was the Great Famine of 1876-78, which highlighted the critical need to understand monsoon patterns for agriculture, revenue, and public health.
• British colonial interests, including agricultural production and shipping, relied heavily on the monsoon.
• Blanford's Contribution (1882-1885)
  • The first tentative forecasts were made by Henry Francis Blanford, who analyzed the relationship between Himalayan snow cover and monsoon rainfall.
  • Blanford’s theory suggested that the extent and thickness of snow in the Himalayas influenced rainfall patterns over India, particularly in northwest regions.
• Eliot's Advances (1889)
  • Sir John Eliot succeeded Blanford as the first Director General of Indian Observatories in 1889.
  • Eliot expanded on Blanford's work by incorporating data on Himalayan snow, local weather conditions, and factors from the Indian Ocean and Australia.
  • Despite these advancements, Eliot’s forecasts were still unable to predict droughts or famines, such as the devastating Indian Famine of 1899-1900.
• Sir Gilbert Walker and Global Influences (1904)
  • In 1904, Sir Gilbert Walker succeeded Eliot and made significant advancements by incorporating global atmospheric, land, and ocean parameters.
  • Walker identified 28 predictors with stable historical correlations to the Indian monsoon and identified the Southern Oscillation (SO) as a key global pressure pattern influencing India's climate.
  • SO was later linked to El Niño, which was identified by Jacob Bjerknes in the 1960s.
  • Walker also divided India into three subregions—Peninsula, Northeast, and Northwest—for more accurate forecasts.

Post-Independence Challenges and the IMD’s Early Forecasting Models

• After India’s independence, the IMD continued using Walker’s monsoon forecasting model until 1987, but the forecasts were not very accurate.
• From 1932 to 1987, the average error in predictions was significant, with errors of 12.33 cm for the peninsula and 9.9 cm for Northwest India.
• The primary issue was that many of Walker’s parameters had lost their relevance over time, leading to poor accuracy despite attempts to improve the model.
• Introduction of the Gowariker Model (1988)
  • In 1988, the IMD adopted a new model based on power regression, developed by Vasant R Gowariker and his team.
  • This model used 16 atmospheric variables as predictors in statistical relationships with total rainfall.
  • Forecasts for the entire country replaced regional forecasts, though regional predictions were reintroduced in 1999 with modified geographical boundaries.
  • However, the new model still faced issues, and by 2000, four of the 16 parameters had lost their correlation with the monsoon, requiring adjustments.
• Failures and Re-evaluation (2000s)
  • The Gowariker model faced significant challenges, including its failure to predict the drought of 2002, which followed 14 years of good monsoons.
  • This failure led to a re-evaluation of the model.
  • In 2003, the IMD introduced two new models based on 8 and 10 parameters, along with a two-stage forecast strategy.
  • While the 2003 forecast was accurate, the models again failed to predict the 2004 drought, prompting further refinement.
• Development of the Statistical Forecasting System (2007)
  • In 2007, the IMD introduced a Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System (SEFS) to support its two-stage forecasting strategy.
  • This new system reduced the number of parameters in the models, replacing the eight-parameter model with a five-parameter model for the first forecast and the ten-parameter model with a six-parameter model for the update.
  • The aim was to avoid "overfitting," ensuring the models could accurately predict new data.
  • The IMD also implemented ensemble forecasting, which combined all possible forecasting models based on different predictor combinations to generate a more robust prediction.
  • This new approach significantly improved the accuracy of monsoon forecasts, with the average error decreasing from 7.94% of the long-period average (LPA) between 1995 and 2006 to 5.95% of LPA between 2007 and 2018.

Recent Improvements in Monsoon Forecasting

• Launch of the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) - 2012
  • The introduction of the MMCFS in 2012 marked a significant advancement in monsoon prediction.
  • This coupled dynamic model combined data from the ocean, atmosphere, and land to provide more accurate forecasts.
  • The IMD used MMCFS alongside the SEFS for improved predictions.
• Multi-Model Ensemble (MME) Approach - 2021
  • In 2021, the IMD further enhanced its forecasting accuracy with the introduction of an MME system.
  • This approach incorporated coupled global climate models (CGCMs) from various global climate prediction and research centers, including India’s own MMCFS.
  • The MME system has significantly improved the accuracy of monsoon predictions.
• Notable Improvements in Forecast Accuracy
  • Since the introduction of SEFS in 2007 and MME in 2021, the IMD's operational forecasts have shown marked improvement.
  • The absolute forecast error in India's seasonal rainfall has decreased by about 21% between 2007 and 2024 compared to 1989-2006.
  • IMD's April forecasts have also become more precise, with deviations of only 2.27 percentage points in the actual rainfall from 2021-2024, well within the forecast range of 4%.
• Scope for Further Improvement
  • Despite these advancements, there is still room for further refinement.
  • Experts have suggested that the IMD should improve its dynamical models by addressing systematic errors and biases, as well as enhancing teleconnectivity with global climate modes such as the ENSO.
  • This could further enhance the precision of the IMD's monsoon forecasts.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court recently suggested that if there is only one candidate in an election, they should be required to secure a minimum prescribed vote share to be declared elected, rather than winning automatically without a poll.

The Court was hearing a petition filed by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, which challenged the constitutionality of Section 53(2) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. This section currently allows a sole candidate to be declared elected without an election.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background - Petition and Argument
• Uncontested Elections in Lok Sabha
• Response of the Election Commission of India (ECI)
• View of the Supreme Court

Background - Petition and Argument

• The petition was filed in August 2024.
• It argues that if an election is not held when there is only one candidate, voters lose the chance to choose the "None of the Above" (NOTA) option.
• This, the petition says, violates the fundamental rights of voters.
• Reference to Supreme Court Judgment
  • The petition cites the Supreme Court’s 2013 judgment in People’s Union for Civil Liberties vs Union of India.
  • In this judgment, the Court recognized the right to cast a negative vote (NOTA) as protected under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution.
• Core Argument
  • It argues that the right to express disapproval through NOTA should be available regardless of the number of candidates contesting the election.

Uncontested Elections in Lok Sabha

• The petition states that between 1951 and 2024, candidates were elected uncontested in 26 Lok Sabha constituencies, based on Election Commission of India reports.
• As a result, over 82 lakh voters were deprived of their right to vote.
• Breakup of Uncontested Elections
  • According to the petition, uncontested elections occurred as follows: seven in 1957, five each in 1951 and 1967, three in 1962, two in 1977, and one each in 1971, 1980, 1989, and 2024.
• Recent Example
  • In 2024, BJP candidate was declared elected unopposed from Surat after all other candidates withdrew or had their nominations rejected.
• Uncontested Elections in State Assemblies
  • The petition also points out that uncontested elections are more frequent in state Assembly elections.

Response of the Election Commission of India (ECI)

• The ECI, in its counter affidavit, noted that uncontested elections occurred in only nine out of 20 Lok Sabha elections held between 1951 and 2024.
• Since 1989, only one MP has been elected uncontested, highlighting that such instances have become extremely rare with the growth of political participation and voter awareness.
• Argument Against the Petition
  • The Commission argued that with democracy evolving and more parties contesting, the likelihood of uncontested elections is now minimal.
  • Therefore, the Supreme Court should not entertain the petition.
• Position on NOTA
  • The ECI emphasized that the "None of the Above" (NOTA) option is available only when polling takes place.
  • NOTA is not to be treated as a competing candidate in uncontested elections.
• Need for Legislative Change
  • The Commission stated that recognizing NOTA as a mandatory contesting option would require amendments to the RPA, 1951, and the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, as the current law does not provide for this.

View of the Supreme Court

• Suggestion for Minimum Vote Requirement
  • SC suggested that when only one candidate remains, they should be required to secure a minimum percentage of votes — such as 10% or 15% — to be declared elected, rather than winning automatically.
• Democracy and Majority Principle
  • It emphasized that democracy is founded on majority support, and even in uncontested situations, a candidate should have at least some voters’ approval to uphold democratic principles.
• Advice to the Government
  • SC urged the government to consider introducing a provision to address such scenarios in the future, stressing that Parliament could decide the specifics.
  • It questioned the idea of allowing someone to enter Parliament "by default" without even minimal voter support.

Why in News?

In March and April, the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) system faced three outages, disrupting payments on apps like GPay and PhonePe.

One major cause was individual banks overwhelming the National Payments Corporation of India’s (NPCI) systems by sending excessive transaction status check requests.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• How UPI Works
• Why NPCI Faced Several Outages
• Why Banks Are Displeased with UPI

How UPI Works

• UPI is built on the Immediate Payment Service (IMPS) architecture.
• For UPI transactions, banks must join the UPI system and allow users to link their bank accounts via a mobile number on a Payment Service Provider (PSP) app like PhonePe or GPay.
• Almost all public and private banks are part of this network.
• Interoperability
  • UPI is designed to be interoperable, enabling users to access their bank accounts through any UPI-enabled app and even register on multiple apps simultaneously.
• Role of NPCI
  • While UPI appears to be a peer-to-peer system, nearly all transactions are routed through the NPCI.
  • NPCI encrypts the user's PIN and forwards payment information to the payer’s bank, which then processes the transaction.
• Single Point of Failure
  • Since NPCI handles critical encryption and transaction routing, any downtime at NPCI results in complete disruption, as banks cannot independently process UPI transactions without it.

Why NPCI Faced Several Outages

• NPCI is a collective of banks, with public sector banks holding the majority stake, as required by the Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007.
• Being bank-led, much of the system's implementation is left to individual banks, though NPCI oversees the UPI design and management.
• Cause of Outages
  • Recently, individual banks overwhelmed the NPCI systems by sending excessive “check transaction” requests to verify completed payments.
  • This stressed the system’s single point of failure and caused brief outages.
• Introduction of UPI Lite
  • To reduce downtime impact, NPCI introduced UPI Lite, allowing users to make small payments (up to ₹2,000) without entering a PIN.
  • However, even UPI Lite transactions still pass through NPCI servers for device verification, meaning NPCI remains a critical intermediary.
• Persistent Single Point of Failure
  • Despite lighter processes like UPI Lite, NPCI continues to be at the center of all UPI activity, maintaining its position as a single point of vulnerability.

Why Banks Are Displeased with UPI

• Lack of Significant Fees
  • Although UPI has revolutionized payments in India, banks have limited opportunities to collect fees from transactions, despite the associated costs.
  • Banks incur around ₹0.80 per transaction, mainly due to SMS notification charges and the costs of maintaining payment records.
  • However, they cannot charge a Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) for these services.
• Impact on Bank Incentives
  • Without the ability to charge MDR, banks have few incentives to maintain rigorous uptime standards, leading to more frequent outages compared to the NPCI.
  • These outages result in increased payment declines.
• Comparison with Card Networks
  • Commercial card networks like MasterCard and Visa experience fewer and shorter downtimes, thanks to better monitoring and enforceable service level agreements (SLAs).
• Government’s Incentive Programme
  • To address the issue, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has introduced a “carrot and stick” approach.
  • This includes an annual UPI incentive program that rewards banks based on their performance and penalizes those with poor uptime.
  • The subsidy compensates banks for not being able to charge MDR.
  • Banks with the lowest performance in uptime receive no compensation.

Why in the News?

The government has selected Bengaluru-based start-up Sarvam to build the country’s first indigenous artificial intelligence (AI) large language model (LLM) amid waves made by China’s low cost model DeepSeek.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India’s Sovereign AI Model (Introduction, About Sarvam AI Model, Variants, Significance, Challenges, Future Prospects)

Introduction

• In a landmark move to bolster India’s strategic autonomy in artificial intelligence (AI), Bengaluru-based start-up Sarvam AI has been selected to build the country’s first homegrown sovereign large language model (LLM).
• The project, undertaken under the government’s ambitious ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, aims to create a robust AI infrastructure fully developed, deployed, and optimized within India.
• This development marks a critical step toward ensuring India’s leadership in the AI domain and promoting domestic innovation through indigenous capabilities.

About the Sarvam AI Model Initiative

• The government chose Sarvam after a rigorous selection process involving 67 applicants. The start-up will receive extensive support, including access to 4,000 high-end GPUs for six months to build the model from scratch​.
• The GPUs will be provided through companies such as Yotta Data Services, Tata Communications, and E2E Networks, which were separately empanelled to create AI data centres in India​.
• The model, to be built entirely using local talent and infrastructure, will have 70 billion parameters, positioning it to compete with some of the best global AI models.
• According to Sarvam, the LLM will focus on advanced reasoning, voice-based tasks, and fluency in Indian languages, making it uniquely suited for India's diverse population​​.

Model Variants Under Development

• Sarvam AI plans to develop three key variants of its LLM​:
  • Sarvam-Large: Designed for advanced reasoning and complex generation tasks.
  • Sarvam-Small: A lightweight model optimized for real-time interactive applications.
  • Sarvam-Edge: A compact model tailored for on-device processing, enabling AI capabilities on mobile and IoT devices.
• These variants aim to cater to a wide range of applications, from citizen services to enterprise solutions, ensuring adaptability across various use cases.

Strategic Significance of the Project

• This initiative goes beyond technological advancement; it is a strategic move to establish critical national AI infrastructure.
• The company emphasized that the goal is to create multi-modal, multi-scale foundation models that are not just functional but deeply integrated with Indian languages and societal needs​​.
• For citizens, this means AI systems that feel familiar and culturally relevant.
• For enterprises, it unlocks the potential to harness AI capabilities without concerns over data sovereignty, as all processes will remain within India's borders.

The IndiaAI Mission and National AI Infrastructure

• The IndiaAI Mission, approved by the Union Cabinet, is focused on scaling India's AI ecosystem by investing in compute capacity, skilled research talent, datasets, AI applications, and trusted AI practices​.
• One of its key initiatives is the IndiaAI Compute Capacity program, which aims to deploy over 10,000 GPUs to democratize access to AI resources for startups, researchers, and institutions.
• To facilitate greater participation, especially by smaller companies, the government has also eased eligibility norms for accessing these resources, offering GPU services at globally competitive subsidized rates​.
• Sarvam’s selection to develop the first sovereign AI model exemplifies the mission’s objective of nurturing homegrown champions capable of competing on the global stage.

Challenges and Opportunities Ahead

• While the opportunity is historic, building a population-scale LLM is a complex challenge.
• It demands seamless integration of vast datasets, engineering innovations to handle diverse languages and dialects, and fine-tuning for cultural and contextual understanding.
• Additionally, unlike some global LLMs that are open-sourced, Sarvam’s model is expected to be closely managed and fine-tuned specifically for Indian use cases​.
• This positions it as a secure and specialized alternative in an era where data privacy and localized solutions are paramount.

Future Prospects

Sarvam’s success could unlock a universe of possibilities, from enabling AI-driven citizen services in rural areas to building enterprise-grade AI applications with localized intelligence. It sets the foundation for India to not merely consume global AI solutions but to become a co-creator and leader in AI innovation.

With investments from prominent venture capitalists​, Sarvam is well-resourced to deliver on this ambitious national mission.

Why in News?

India has expanded its Extended Continental Shelf (ECS) claim by nearly 10,000 sq km in the Central Arabian Sea. India has also modified earlier claims to avoid a long-standing maritime boundary dispute with Pakistan.

Revised submissions were made in April 2025 to the United Nations' Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS).

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background - Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and ECS
• India’s Current Oceanic Claims
• Dispute with Pakistan and Sir Creek Issue
• India's Strategic Response - Modified and Partial Claims
• Overlap with Other Countries - Oman, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka

Background - Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and ECS:

• EEZ: Coastal countries have exclusive rights to mining, fishing, and resources up to 200 nautical miles from their baselines.
• ECS:
  • Countries can claim additional seabed areas if they can scientifically prove it is a natural extension of their landmass to the CLCS.
  • Rights include commercial mining of polymetallic nodules, oil reserves, and other valuable minerals. 

India’s Current Oceanic Claims:

• 12 nautical miles: Territorial Sea.
• 200 nautical miles:
• New extension: ~1.2 million sq km of ECS being added to ~2 million sq km EEZ.
• Combined seabed and sub-seabed area: It would become almost equal to India's land area of 3.274 million sq km.
• India's first submission to the CLCS: It was made in 2009 covering the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian Sea.

Dispute with Pakistan and Sir Creek Issue:

• In 2021, Pakistan objected to India's claims, citing an overlap of 100 nautical miles near the disputed Sir Creek region.
  • Sir Creek is a disputed tidal estuary between Rann of Kutch in Gujarat and Sindh province (Pakistan).
• As a result, CLCS rejected India's full claim in the Arabian Sea in March 2023.

India's Strategic Response - Modified and Partial Claims:

• April 3, 2025: India submitted two partial claims to safeguard uncontested regions.
  • This approach avoids weakening India’s position in the valuable Central Arabian Sea region.
• Govt’s Position: “We have increased our claim by an additional 10,000 sq km based on new data.”
• Institutions of the MoES, such as the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR, Goa), have played a key role in the technical aspects of determining India’s continental shelf.

Overlap with Other Countries - Oman, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka:

• Oman: Overlaps exist but not under dispute due to a 2010 agreement.
• Myanmar and Sri Lanka:
  • India's claims in the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean (~300,000 sq km) face objections from Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
  • CLCS will begin new consultations later this year on these claims.

Context

• In a world marked by economic uncertainty, global trade tensions, and volatile stock markets, India has emerged as a beacon of resilience.
• Fuelled by its demographic dividend, technological advancements, and rich cultural heritage, the country stands poised to reimagine its global role, not just as an economic force, but as a creative powerhouse.
• Central to this vision is India’s rapidly evolving Media & Entertainment (M&E) sector, which seeks to inspire and connect creators across the world through the motto: "Create in India, Create for the World."

The Rise of India's Creative Influence

• India's global influence in creative industries is rapidly growing, supported by a youthful, talented population engaged in diverse fields such as cinema, art, music, gaming, and technology.
• A shining example is Namit Malhotra’s visual effects company, DNEG, which played a pivotal role in the Oscar-winning film Dune 2, contributing to India’s seventh Oscar victory.
• Such milestones underscore India’s shift from traditional filmmaking to world-class digital production and storytelling innovation.

WAVES 2025: Nurturing the Ecosystem

• To further cement its status in the global M&E arena, the Government of India has launched the World Audio-Visual Entertainment Summit (WAVES).
• Scheduled for May 2025 in Mumbai, the summit will feature the WAVES Xcelerator (WAVEX), a dynamic platform to support creative startups.
• This initiative aims to connect young Indian creators with global industry leaders, investors, and mentors, addressing key challenges such as funding, visibility, and mentorship.
• India’s M&E sector, valued at ₹2,422 billion in 2023, is projected to reach ₹3,067 billion by 2027.
• WAVEX is designed to catalyse this growth, particularly in frontier areas like Artificial Intelligence (AI), gaming, the metaverse, and immersive media technologies.

Key Features of WAVES

• Inclusivity and Innovation at the Forefront
  • WAVEX also champions diversity and inclusivity by supporting women-led startups like Lapwing Studios and Vygr Media.
  • The program creates a launchpad for entrepreneurs who might otherwise struggle for recognition on the global stage. It offers not just financial backing but a structured environment fostering long-term innovation and impact.
  • Innovative companies such as Erucanavis Technologies, known for their AI-driven playable ads, and Offline Human Studios, pushing the boundaries of VR storytelling, demonstrate the breadth and creativity within India’s startup ecosystem.
  • Ed-tech innovators like InscapeXR and Vision Impact are redefining learning using immersive technologies, reflecting the sector's interdisciplinary strength and cultural relevance.
• A Synergy of Art, Science, and Imagination
  • India’s creative revolution is not confined to the arts. It reflects a deeper synergy between culture and science, where experimentation thrives in both laboratories and art studios.
  • Institutions like the Museum of Art and Photography (MAP) and Science Gallery Bengaluru celebrate this convergence, illustrating how creativity transcends disciplines.
  • India’s storytelling tradition, spanning classical dance, cinema, comics, and now digital and immersive media, forms the cultural bedrock of this new creative economy.
  • The essence of India’s artistic spirit is not just about preserving heritage, but about transforming it into futuristic, globally relevant expressions.

Significance of WAVEX: A Vision for Tomorrow

• The spirit of creativity is most palpable among India’s youth, who are not only shaping today’s narratives but envisioning the future of global entertainment and culture.
• WAVES 2025 is more than an event; it’s an ambitious movement to fuel this energy and turn ideas into enterprises that can influence the world.
• As a catalyst for creative startups, WAVES represents the future of India's soft power.
• Its impact goes beyond economic metrics, it develops self-expression, cultural exchange, and identity formation in an interconnected world.
• The government’s support, paired with the visionary drive of creators and entrepreneurs, ensures that India is not just participating in the global creative economy, it is leading it.

Conclusion

• With initiatives like WAVES and the unrelenting spirit of its creators, the country is ready to inspire the world through its stories, innovations, and imagination.
• The vision of “Create in India, Create for the World” is not just a slogan; it is a declaration of intent, one that seeks to place Indian creativity at the heart of global culture and innovation.
• India stands on the cusp of a creative revolution and now is India’s moment, to lead, to inspire, and to create.

Context

• The global fight against malnutrition took a significant leap forward at the recent Nutrition for Growth (N4G) Summit held in Paris, where world leaders gathered to reaffirm their commitment to ending all forms of malnutrition.
• Coinciding with this summit, the United Nations General Assembly extended the Decade of Action on Nutrition to 2030, reinforcing alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• While past efforts have focused heavily on access to food and early childhood nutrition, a growing global consensus is calling for a paradigm shift, one that emphasises nutrition education, particularly for school-aged children and adolescents.

Nutrition Education: From Awareness to Action

• One of the key takeaways from the N4G Summit’s side event, ‘Learn to Eat Well: Bio-diverse Diets and Youth as Agents of Change,’ was the call to embed nutrition education in schools.
• This education must transcend calorie counting and include lessons on how to make informed, sustainable, and culturally respectful food choices.
• In today’s fast-paced, convenience-driven food landscape, where processed foods are easily accessible and aggressively marketed, such education is more important than ever.

The Crisis of Dietary Diversity and Rethinking the Focus on Nutrition

• The Crisis of Dietary Diversity
  • A major casualty of modern food systems is dietary diversity. Despite the UN’s adoption of Minimum Dietary Diversity as an indicator under SDG 2, many children still fail to consume even five of ten essential food groups daily.
  • This dietary inadequacy is not confined to impoverished regions but is also prevalent in urban centres, indicating systemic issues in both food access and education.
  • Poor diets contribute not only to malnutrition and obesity but also to chronic illnesses and mental health challenges.
  • Alarmingly, research suggests that 70% of preventable adult diseases originate from childhood habits, underlining the urgency of early and sustained intervention.
• Rethinking the Focus on Nutrition
  • Historically, nutrition initiatives have targeted the first 1,000 days of life, from conception to age two, as the most critical period for preventing malnutrition.
  • However, emerging research highlights the importance of the next 4,000 days, including adolescence, a time marked by intense physical and psychological development.
  • Proper nutrition during this period can mitigate early deficits, aid in growth recovery, and lay the foundation for lifelong health.
  • This calls for a shift from simply feeding children to teaching them how and why to eat well.

The Missing Link in Schools

• Despite the critical role schools can play, nutrition education is often absent, outdated, or disconnected from students' lived experiences.
• Teachers frequently lack the tools and training needed to deliver effective food education.
• A structured curriculum, beginning from preschool and extending through middle school, could fill this gap.
• Such a curriculum should explore the relationship between food, the human body, the environment, and cultural identity.
• Central to this approach is the promotion of bio-diverse diets, those that prioritise local, seasonal, and culturally familiar foods, benefiting not just personal health but also local economies and environmental sustainability.

The Way Forward and Opportunities for India

• Bringing Food Education to Life
  • To be effective, food education must be an immersive part of school life.
  • Weekly lessons, practical experiences like gardening and cooking, healthier canteen options, and student-led campaigns can develop deeper engagement and lasting habits.
  • Around the world, innovative schools are already demonstrating success: students are reading food labels, preparing meals, and understanding the impact of their dietary choices on both personal and planetary health.
• India’s Opportunity
  • India’s National Education Policy and the School Health and Wellness Programme have laid a foundational framework for integrated nutrition education.
  • Yet, to achieve meaningful change, this framework must evolve into a comprehensive curriculum with consistent implementation, appropriate learning materials, and teacher training.
  • Recognising children as not only learners but also influencers is vital.
  • Equipped with the right knowledge, they can positively impact their families and communities, advocating for healthier meals, reducing food waste, and promoting sustainable practices.

Conclusion

• In a world grappling with the twin challenges of undernutrition and overconsumption, climate change, and cultural erosion, food literacy is no longer optional, it is essential.
• Teaching children to eat well is about much more than nutrition; it is about cultivating respect for health, heritage, and the environment.
• If we hope to raise a generation that is healthier, more empathetic, and better equipped for the future, we must embed nutrition education at the heart of every child’s learning journey, starting now.

Why in the News?

The Indian government is contemplating permitting foreign firms to acquire up to 49% ownership in nuclear power facilities, according to three government officials.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India’s Nuclear Energy Landscape (Background, Proposal, Key Features, Significance, etc.)

Introduction

• India is preparing for a major shift in its energy strategy by considering allowing up to 49% foreign investment in its nuclear power sector.
• This landmark move aims to strengthen the country’s clean energy capacity, reduce dependency on coal, and contribute significantly to carbon emission reduction goals.
• If implemented, it would mark the first time India opens its tightly controlled nuclear energy sector to substantial foreign participation.

Background: India’s Nuclear Energy Landscape

• Nuclear energy plays a relatively small but strategic role in India's electricity mix, currently contributing just over 8 GW, roughly 2% of the installed capacity.
• India's nuclear energy infrastructure is governed strictly by state-owned entities under the Atomic Energy Act of 1960, with no provision for private or foreign ownership till now.
• In 2008, India signed a civil nuclear agreement with the United States, opening doors for billion-dollar deals with American firms.
• However, concerns over the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act of 2010, particularly regarding unlimited liability during accidents, deterred foreign participation.

Key Features of the Proposed Move

• Allowing 49% Foreign Investment
  • The proposed policy will permit foreign companies to own up to 49% equity in nuclear power plants.
  • This foreign ownership would not be automatic; it would require prior government approval to ensure stringent scrutiny.
• Legal Amendments
  • To facilitate this change, the government plans to amend two critical legislations:
    • The Atomic Energy Act, 1960: To allow private sector companies to build, own, and operate nuclear plants and engage in atomic fuel mining and manufacturing.
    • The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010: To modify liability norms that have been major deterrents for foreign and private investments.
• The draft proposals are expected to be tabled before the federal cabinet soon, with an aim to pass the amendments during the Parliament’s monsoon session in July 2025.

Private Sector Participation

• Besides foreign firms, Indian private conglomerates like Reliance Industries, Tata Power, Adani Power, and Vedanta have also shown interest.
• Together, they are discussing potential investments amounting to around $26 billion in the nuclear sector.

Strategic Importance of the Decision

• Meeting Carbon Reduction Goals
  • India’s pledge to reduce carbon emissions and achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 relies heavily on expanding its clean energy portfolio.
  • Expanding nuclear energy capacity is crucial, especially to meet night-time electricity demands when solar and wind energy are insufficient.
• Target: 100 GW Nuclear Capacity by 2047
  • The government aims to expand nuclear energy capacity from around 8 GW today to 100 GW by 2047, a 12-fold increase.
  • This ambitious target underscores the urgency behind liberalizing the nuclear energy sector.
• Boosting Global Cooperation
  • The move could facilitate deeper energy partnerships with countries like the United States, France, and Russia.
  • Foreign firms such as Westinghouse Electric, GE-Hitachi, Electricité de France (EDF), and Rosatom have expressed interest in participating as technology suppliers, contractors, or service providers.

Safeguards and Regulatory Control

• Despite the opening up, stringent regulatory oversight will continue.
• Foreign investments will require case-by-case government approvals, and the core principles of nuclear non-proliferation and safety will remain uncompromised.

Conclusion

India’s plan to allow 49% foreign investment in nuclear power plants represents a historic transformation of the sector. By inviting global expertise and capital, India is not only addressing its urgent energy and environmental needs but also strengthening its strategic partnerships.

While the move faces legislative and regulatory hurdles, it signals India's determination to align its energy policy with its climate and growth ambitions.

Context:

• This year marks the 70th anniversary of the first Asia-Africa Summit held in Bandung, Indonesia (April 18–24, 1955).
• This historical meeting of 29 newly independent Asian and African nations, set the stage for South-South cooperation and laid the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
• The relevance of the Bandung principles is critical in today’s geopolitical environment - rising global polarisation, erosion of multilateralism, and challenges to the rules-based international order.

Bandung’s Core Principles and Objectives:

• Anti-colonial solidarity: Shared experiences of colonial exploitation and marginalisation.
• Common goals:
  • Principles of sovereignty and independent policy making.
  • Collective action in the global south.
• Key principles adopted:
  • Political independence.
  • Mutual respect for sovereignty.
  • Non-aggression and non-interference in internal affairs.
• Alignment with UN charter: Commitment to a rules-based international order grounded in UN principles.

South Africa’s Role and Anti-Apartheid Advocacy:

• Strategic use of Bandung: Brought global attention to the oppressive apartheid regime in South Africa that governed the country through White minority rule.
• The African National Congress (ANC) delegation:
  • The ANC was the foremost liberation organisation championing the freedom of the country both within and internationally.
  • It sent two delegates to the conference (Moses Kotane and Maulvi Chachalia) to lobby support internationally for South Africa’s freedom struggle.

Challenges to the Multilateral World Order:

• Erosion of multilateralism:
  • Rise of polarisation and trust deficit among major powers.
  • Emergence of “might is right” as a guiding principle.
• UN reform crisis:
  • Paralysis of institutions like the UN Security Council.
  • Stalled negotiations on equitable representation and expansion of UNSC membership.
• PM Narendra Modi’s critique: Described international organisations as "irrelevant" due to lack of reform.

The Global South - Then and Now:

• Initial marginalisation: Absence during UN’s formation in 1945; continued exclusion from global decision-making bodies.
• Bandung legacy:
  • Precursor of the NAM (1961) and G77 (1964).
  • Advocated collective aspirations and a multipolar world.
• Contemporary relevance and role:
  • Emerging powers: Rise of China, India, Brazil, Indonesia, South Africa.
  • South-south institutions: Formation of BRICS as a counterweight to Global North’s dominance.
  • Strategic imperative:
    • Forge new partnerships and alliances.
    • Collaborate with like-minded Global North nations.
    • Champion an inclusive, equitable, just global order.

Conclusion - Bandung’s Vision in Today’s Context:

• The Bandung spirit remains a guiding force for the Global South.
• The need to reshape multilateralism and redefine global governance is urgent.
• Global South must take proactive leadership to realise a fair and multipolar world - “The architects of Bandung would expect nothing less.”

Why in News?

U.S. President Donald Trump, in an interview with Time, stated that Crimea will stay with Russia and suggested that the region had effectively been handed to Putin during Obama’s Presidency. He reportedly urged Ukraine to accept a peace deal recognizing Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea.

Experts caution that while tolerating a long-term occupation might be pragmatic, formally accepting a border change enforced by military force would mark a significant and troubling shift in U.S. foreign policy.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Strategic Importance of Crimea
• Context of Crimea in the Current War
• Donald Trump’s Proposal on Crimea

The Strategic Importance of Crimea

• 
• Geographic Significance
  • Crimea holds immense strategic value due to its location, benefiting both from its own geography and that of Russia.
• Russia’s Historical Quest for Warm Water Ports
  • Most of Russia’s coastline lies in the Arctic region, making many ports unusable during winter.
  • Hence, gaining access to warm water ports has been a long-standing goal of Russian foreign policy.
• Black Sea – Russia’s Gateway to the Mediterranean
  • The Black Sea provides Russia with its warmest waters and the only direct maritime access to the Mediterranean via the Turkish-controlled Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits.
  • Control of these straits has historically been viewed as critical to Russia’s economic and military interests.
• Sevastopol – The Naval Stronghold
  • Unlike other shallow Black Sea ports, Sevastopol in Crimea is a deep-water port ideal for hosting the Black Sea Fleet.
  • It has been central to Russia’s maritime strategy since the 18th century and became a focal point in post-Soviet tensions with Ukraine.
• Post-Soviet Disputes and Agreements
  • After the Soviet Union's collapse, the 1997 Kharkiv Pact allowed Russia to retain its naval base in Sevastopol, even though Crimea was part of Ukraine.
  • This lease was extended until 2042, but Russia unilaterally ended the agreement during its 2014 annexation of Crimea.

Context of Crimea in the Current War

• 2014 Political Upheaval and Russian Annexation
  • After the ousting of pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in February 2014 by a pro-Western movement in Ukraine, Russian forces swiftly occupied strategic locations in Crimea.
  • By mid-March, Crimea was formally annexed by Russia following a declaration of independence and a request to join the Russian Federation.
• Russia’s Strategic Motives for Annexation:
  • Securing Sevastopol
    • The renewed lease in 2010 was opposed by the new Ukrainian leadership.
    • Russia feared losing access to the naval base in Sevastopol if Ukraine consolidated power.
  • NATO Expansion Fears
    • The Kremlin was alarmed by the prospect of Ukraine joining NATO, which would place the alliance on Russia’s Black Sea border, undermining Russian security interests in what was once a "Soviet lake."
• Crimea as a Launchpad for Invasion
• Control over Crimea was seen as essential for any future military action in Ukraine.
• The 2022 invasion was partly enabled by Russia’s fortified presence in the peninsula.
• Current Status
  • While Ukraine controls the city of Kherson, Russia holds much of the surrounding oblast and thus maintains effective control over the canal’s operations.

Donald Trump’s Proposal on Crimea

• Crimea was part of Russia for centuries before being transferred to Ukraine in 1954 by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev.
• Putin does not accept this transfer and considers it a historical mistake. Trump’s proposal aligns with this and legitimizes Russia’s claim over the peninsula.
• By freezing Ukraine’s political map as it stands today, the US will secure Crimea — and the canal — for Moscow for the long term.
• Ukraine’s Rejection
  • Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy firmly rejected any deal that involves ceding Ukrainian territory, emphasizing that such an agreement would violate Ukraine’s constitution.
• Geopolitical Risks and Consequences
  • Commentators argue that accepting Trump’s proposal would be disastrous for Ukraine, as it could embolden Russia to eventually conquer all of Ukraine.
  • Furthermore, such a concession might set a dangerous precedent for other authoritarian regimes, notably China, regarding territorial ambitions, such as over Taiwan.

Why in News?

Pakistan's closure of its airspace to Indian airlines is set to impact over 800 weekly flights, leading to longer travel times, higher fuel consumption, and complications in crew and flight scheduling.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Impact of Pakistan Airspace Closure on Indian Flights
• Pakistan’s Last Airspace Closure
• Possible Future Outcomes

Impact of Pakistan Airspace Closure on Indian Flights

• Scope of the Ban:
  • Pakistan has banned all aircraft registered in India or operated by Indian carriers from using its airspace.
• Affected Routes
  • The closure impacts all west-bound flights from northern Indian cities, especially Delhi, to Central Asia, the Caucasus, West Asia, Europe, the UK, and North America.
• Longer Flight Paths
  • Flights will need to reroute over the Arabian Sea, increasing journey times and leading to higher fuel consumption.
• Operational Challenges
  • Airlines will face difficulties with fuel management and payload, potentially needing to reduce the number of passengers or baggage to maintain safe weight limits.
• Increased Costs and Airfares
  • Operational costs will rise due to longer routes and higher fuel burn.
  • Airfares on international routes operated by Indian carriers may increase by 8–12%, with a possibility of further hikes if the situation persists.
• Competitive Disadvantage
  • Foreign airlines that can still use Pakistani airspace will gain a cost advantage over Indian carriers on shared routes.
• Most Affected Airline
  • Air India, which operates several direct flights to Europe, the US, and Canada from Delhi, is expected to be hit the hardest.
• Uncertainty in Flight Plans
  • Airlines are still evaluating routing options, and more clarity will come once final flight plans are submitted.
• IndiGo’s Growing Exposure
  • Since 2019, IndiGo has expanded significantly into Central Asia, Turkey, and the Caucasus, becoming the only Indian carrier operating in those regions.
  • Its operations are notably impacted under the new restrictions.

Pakistan’s Last Airspace Closure

• Pakistan last closed its airspace in February 2019 after the Indian Air Force conducted air strikes in Balakot in response to the Pulwama terror attack.
• Duration and Impact
  • The closure lasted for several months, causing significant operational disruptions for Indian airlines due to the need for longer alternate routes.
• Financial Losses
  • Indian airlines collectively incurred losses of around Rs 700 crore, mainly due to increased fuel expenses and logistical challenges.
• Most Affected Airline
  • Air India suffered the most, as it operated the highest number of west-bound international flights during the closure period.