Why in news?

• Internet access in India depends on the Internet Service Provider (ISP), not just in terms of price and quality, but also which websites are accessible.
• ISPs block websites based on government and court orders, but implementation differs, leading to varying blocklists across providers.
• Under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (Sections 69A and 79), the government has the power to order such blocks.
• ISP licensing agreements require providers to comply with blocking orders, which are confidential and binding.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Internet Censorship in India
• How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols
• What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

Internet Censorship in India

• Internet censorship refers to the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the internet.
• In India, it sits at the intersection of free speech, national security, public order, and digital governance.
• Constitutional Basis
  • Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression, which courts have extended to online speech.
  • Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions on grounds of sovereignty, security of state, public order, decency, and morality.
  • Internet shutdown or censorship must pass the test of reasonableness and proportionality.
• Legal Framework
  • Information Technology Act, 2000
    • Section 69A — Empowers the Central Government to block websites/content in the interest of sovereignty, security, public order, etc.
    • Section 66A (now struck down) — Criminalised "offensive" online speech; declared unconstitutional in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015).
    • Section 79 — Safe harbour provision for intermediaries.
  • IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021
    • Mandates traceability of message originators (threatens end-to-end encryption).
    • Requires significant social media intermediaries to appoint Grievance Officers.
    • Controversial for placing heavy compliance burdens on platforms.
  • Telecom Act, 2023
    • Replaces the Telegraph Act; consolidates powers related to telecom suspension, including internet services.
• Types of Censorship Practiced in India
  • Website Blocking — Blocking of URLs/domains by ISPs on government orders (e.g., pornographic sites, piracy sites, separatist content).
  • Internet Shutdowns — Suspension of mobile/broadband internet in specific regions during unrest (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur).
  • Social Media Takedowns — Government directives to platforms to remove specific posts, accounts, or content.
  • App Bans — Banning of Chinese apps (e.g., TikTok, PUBG Mobile) under Section 69A citing national security.

How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols

• The Internet works through protocols like Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Transport Layer Security (TLS), and Domain Name System (DNS) among others. ISPs can use any of these to block websites.
• DNS (Domain Name System) is the first step when accessing a website, converting domain names into IP addresses.
• ISPs often block websites at the DNS level using DNS poisoning, where incorrect addresses are returned instead of the real ones.
• As a result, users are redirected away from the actual website.
• Most Indian ISPs prefer DNS blocking because it is cheap and easy to implement without advanced inspection.

What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

• Scale of the Study - Analysis of 294 million domains across six ISPs in 2025 found 43,083 blocked domains.
• Lack of Uniform Blocking - Only 1,414 domains were blocked by all six ISPs. ISPs do not block the same websites despite receiving similar orders.
• Variation by Content Type - Majority of blocked sites include: Piracy, peer-to-peer sharing, pornography, and gambling. Blocking is inconsistent across ISPs for these categories.
• Higher Consistency in Sensitive Cases - Domains related to terrorism and militancy show higher blocking consistency. Some cases (e.g., Weibo, The Kashmir Walla) show uniform enforcement.
• Arbitrary and Uneven Implementation - ISPs engage in arbitrary blocking practices. Lack of standard guidelines leads to a haphazard blocking system.
• Issue of Opacity - The blocking system is non-transparent. There is a need for disclosure of blocked domains, except in sensitive cases.