Why in the News?

• Magnetic levitation (maglev) technology has drawn renewed global interest as countries explore high-speed rail options that use magnetic fields to lift and propel trains at speeds exceeding 400 km/hr.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Magnetic Levitation (Introduction, Working, Downsides, Applications, Significance, etc.)

About Magnetic Levitation

• Maglev is a portmanteau of "magnetic levitation." Instead of running on wheels like conventional trains, maglev technology uses strong magnetic fields to lift the train and move it forward. Since the train floats above the track:
  • No rolling friction during normal operations
  • Not affected by weather conditions like rain or snow
  • Extremely high speeds possible, topping 400 km/hr
  • Smooth ride for passengers with minimal vibration
• The Physics Behind Levitation
  • Nature has four fundamental forces:
    • Two nuclear forces (strong and weak)
    • Electromagnetic force
    • Gravity
  • Gravity is the weakest by far, around 10³⁹ times weaker than the electromagnetic force. This is why a small magnet can stick to a fridge despite the entire gravitational pull of the Earth.
  • The same principle enables lifting trains weighing 150 to 500 tonnes using magnetic forces.

How Maglev Trains Are Lifted?

• Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS)
  • The most common maglev technology uses EMS:
    • The train has two "arms" that wrap around the guideway.
    • Strong electromagnets on these arms point magnetic fields upward toward protruding parts of the guideway.
    • The train's arms wrap only halfway around the guideway, similar to how fingers wrap around a bag's strap.
    • When electromagnets are turned on, they attract the train toward the guideway, pushing it upward.
    • Sensors ensure the train floats at around 10 mm above the guideway at all times.
• Electrodynamic Suspension (EDS)
  • A related technology called EDS uses:
    • Superconducting magnets on the train, cooled to very low temperatures.
    • As the train moves, the magnets induce an electric current in coils built into the sides of the tracks (electromagnetic induction). This creates a repulsive force that pushes the train up.
    • The train hovers higher, at around 100 mm above the track.
    • It requires the train to reach around 100 km/hr using wheels before the effect kicks in.
    • It can support higher speeds; Japan's SCMAGLEV EDS system achieved 603 km/hr during testing in 2015
      • EMS systems typically operate at around or under 500 km/hr.

How Maglev Trains Move Forward

• The propulsion system works as follows:
  • The walls of the guideway are lined with coils carrying an alternating current (AC).
  • This current creates a magnetic field that constantly shifts its poles (north to south) along the track.
  • The magnets on the train are attracted to the opposite pole ahead and repelled by the like pole behind.
  • The train is simultaneously pulled forward from the front and pushed forward from the back. To increase speed, engineers just need to increase the frequency of the AC.
  • To slow down or stop, the current direction is switched to reverse the magnetic field.
  • Regenerative braking can divert energy saved by braking back to the electric grid.
• Maintaining Stability
  • Side magnets ensure the train stays centred by repelling/attracting as needed.
  • For emergencies or magnetic brake failure, friction brakes are also fitted.
  • Auxiliary wheels with braking systems similar to those of regular trains.
  • Braking pads between the guideway and train apply friction.

Downsides of Maglev Technology

• Infrastructure Requirements
  • Dedicated guideways are required; they cannot reuse existing rail infrastructure or stations.
  • Precision engineering is needed for magnets and coils in the guideway.
  • Very expensive infrastructure, the Shanghai Maglev (completed in 2004) cost Rs. 580 crore to Rs. 720 crore per kilometre (inflation-adjusted).
  • This excludes the cost of preparing local terrain and ongoing operational costs.
• Economic Viability
  • Requires very high and consistent passenger demand to justify costs.
  • High maintenance and operational expenses.
  • Limited scalability compared to conventional rail.
• Engineering Challenges
  • Trains moving over 300 km/hr experience significant aerodynamic resistance.
  • This requires aerodynamic designs, including bird-beak-shaped front portions.
  • Additional design considerations add to the overall costs.

Applications Beyond Trains

• Industrial Applications
  • High-speed turbines and compressors suspend rotating shafts in magnetic fields instead of conventional bearings.
  • Aircraft carriers use linear motor technology (similar to maglev propulsion) to accelerate aircraft on runways.
  • Factory automation systems achieve rapid, precise motion for:
    • Semiconductor manufacturing
    • Food and medicine packaging
    • CNC machining
    • Inspection cameras with lasers or X-rays
    • DNA sequencing
• Scientific Research
  • Biological samples
  • Liquid droplets
  • Molten metals
  • Small animals for experiments

Global Maglev Systems

• Notable Operational Systems
  • Shanghai Maglev (China): Commercial service since 2004, top speed of 431 km/hr.
  • Linimo (Japan): Low-speed maglev, operational since 2005.
  • SCMAGLEV (Japan): Under construction, achieved 603 km/hr in testing.
  • Incheon Airport Maglev (South Korea): Low-speed maglev.
• Future Prospects
  • Several countries are exploring maglev for high-speed intercity travel, though the high infrastructure costs remain a significant barrier to widespread adoption.

Significance of Maglev Technology

• Transportation Revolution
  • Faster travel times for intercity connectivity
  • Reduced dependence on air travel for short-to-medium distance journeys
  • Environmentally friendly as it can run on renewable electricity
  • Reduced noise pollution compared to conventional trains
• Technological Innovation
  • Demonstrates advanced applications of electromagnetism
  • Drives innovation in superconducting technologies
  • Contributes to precision engineering capabilities
  • Enables spin-off technologies for various industries
• Economic Considerations
  • High initial investment but potential long-term benefits
  • Creates specialised manufacturing and engineering jobs
  • Requires skilled workforce development
  • Can spur regional economic development along corridors

Relevance for India

• While India currently does not have operational maglev systems, the technology has been discussed in the context of:
  • High-speed rail projects like the Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train (which uses conventional Shinkansen technology);
  • Future connectivity between major metropolitan areas;
  • Semiconductor manufacturing benefiting from maglev-based automation;
  • Research and development in advanced transportation technologies;
• The technology's high cost remains a significant consideration for a country balancing multiple infrastructure priorities.

Context

• A city reflects its priorities through the way it treats its most vulnerable citizens.
• In India, pedestrians often face broken, encroached, or non-existent footpaths, forcing them onto busy roads and exposing them to constant danger.
• Safe and accessible walkways are not merely civic amenities but essential components of public health, road safety, urban mobility, and human dignity.
• Recognising this, the Supreme Court has affirmed that the right to walk safely on footpaths is a fundamental right, marking a significant step toward creating people-centric cities. 

The Constitutional Recognition of Walkability

• In Maniyar Iliyaz @ Shaik Riyaz vs P. Ayyappan (2026), the Supreme Court declared that walking on designated footpaths is protected under Article 19(1)(d), guaranteeing freedom of movement, and Article 21, safeguarding the right to life and personal liberty.
• The Court directed States and Union Territories to formulate policies for the provision and maintenance of safe footpaths.
• This judgment elevates pedestrian infrastructure from a routine municipal responsibility to a constitutional obligation.
• It establishes that roads are public spaces meant for all citizens, not just motor vehicles, and that governments must ensure safe and accessible mobility.

Walkability as a Public Health Imperative

• India is witnessing an alarming increase in diabetes, hypertension, obesity, fatty liver disease, and other lifestyle disorders.
• One of the most effective and affordable ways to address this crisis is by encouraging regular physical activity, particularly walking.
• However, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that nearly half of Indian adults fail to meet the recommended levels of physical activity, with women and adolescents recording even lower participation.
• Safe footpaths enable people to integrate physical activity into their daily routines by walking to schools, workplaces, markets, bus stops, parks, and metro stations.
• Walking offers numerous health benefits, including improved cardiovascular health, blood pressure control, insulin sensitivity, weight management, better mental well-being, improved sleep, and enhanced joint function.
• Thus, footpaths function as preventive healthcare infrastructure that promotes healthier communities. 

The Built Environment Shapes Human Behaviour

• Physical inactivity is not solely the result of personal choices. Urban design strongly influences lifestyle patterns.
• Cities that lack continuous, shaded, barrier-free, and well-maintained footpaths discourage walking and encourage dependence on private vehicles.
• Accessible pedestrian infrastructure benefits every section of society.
• Children can safely walk to school, elderly citizens remain independent, women enjoy greater security, persons with disabilities gain mobility, and office-goers are more likely to use public transport.
• Therefore, investing in walkability promotes both social inclusion and sustainable urban development.

Pedestrian Safety and Road Fatalities

• Poor pedestrian infrastructure is also a major road safety concern.
• Official data consistently show that pedestrians and two-wheeler riders account for the majority of road accident fatalities in India.
• Every missing or encroached footpath forces pedestrians into direct conflict with fast-moving traffic, turning daily commuting into a life-threatening activity.
• Improving pedestrian infrastructure through dedicated footpaths, safe crossings, traffic-calming measures, and better lighting can substantially reduce accidents and save thousands of lives each year.

Role of Citizens in Promoting Walkability

• While governments bear primary responsibility, citizens also have an important role in creating a walking culture.
• Individuals should incorporate regular walking into their daily routine, choose walking for short-distance travel, combine walking with public transport, and encourage community walking initiatives through families, workplaces, and resident welfare associations.
• Citizens should also actively demand safe, encroachment-free footpaths as a constitutional entitlement rather than viewing them as optional civic facilities. 

Policy Measures for People-Centric Cities

• Creating walkable cities requires coordinated action across multiple sectors.
• Key policy priorities include:
  • Integrating continuous, shaded, well-lit, and barrier-free footpaths into every road project.
  • Installing ramps, safe pedestrian crossings, and wheelchair-accessible infrastructure.
  • Preventing parking on footpaths through effective enforcement and meaningful penalties.
  • Prioritising pedestrian infrastructure around schools, hospitals, markets, bus stops, and metro stations.
  • Expanding tree cover, benches, public toilets, and adequate street lighting.
  • Launching a National Active Mobility Mission linking urban development, transport, health, and education.
  • Conducting annual footpath audits and publishing ward-level walkability maps to improve accountability.
  • Encouraging employers to promote active commuting and healthcare professionals to prescribe walking as preventive medicine.

Conclusion

• The recognition of walking as a fundamental constitutional right marks a transformative shift in India's urban governance.
• However, judicial recognition alone cannot improve everyday life unless it is supported by thoughtful planning, adequate funding, effective enforcement, and active citizen participation.
• A truly modern city is measured not by the number of flyovers it builds but by how safely its citizens can walk.
• Footpaths are not merely strips of concrete; they represent public health, road safety, accessibility, social equity, environmental sustainability, and constitutional dignity.

Context

• The rapidly evolving global security environment has compelled nations to strengthen defence capabilities and forge strategic partnerships.
• The rise of drones, autonomous systems, space-based weapons, and geopolitical uncertainties has transformed the nature of warfare.
• Against this backdrop, Canada and India are emerging as natural partners with complementary strengths in defence, technology, critical minerals, and aerospace.
• Their growing collaboration has the potential to contribute to regional stability, resilient supply chains, and a secure Indo-Pacific.

Changing Global Security Landscape

• The international order is undergoing significant transformation, marked by increasing geopolitical tensions, technological competition, and hybrid warfare.
• Nations are investing heavily in military modernization to address emerging threats.
• Canada has responded by committing to increase its defence expenditure to 5% of GDP by 2035, while India continues to modernize its armed forces under the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat.
• This convergence of strategic priorities creates favourable conditions for deeper bilateral defence cooperation.

 Strengthening Bilateral Defence Engagement

• Institutional Cooperation
  • Several important mechanisms have been established, including:
  • Appointment of Defence Advisers in Ottawa and New Delhi.
  • Creation of a formal Defence Dialogue to identify shared priorities.
  • Enhanced military exchanges between defence institutions.
  • These measures institutionalize defence cooperation and facilitate regular strategic consultations.
• Military Exercises and Professional Exchanges
  • The armed forces of both nations have expanded practical cooperation through:
    • Participation in multinational naval exercises such as Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) and Talisman Sabre.
    • Visits by India's National Defence College delegation to Canadian military institutions.
    • Increased exchanges among defence personnel to promote interoperability and strategic understanding.
    • Such engagements strengthen military readiness and mutual trust.
• Defence Industrial Collaboration
  • Defence industrial cooperation represents one of the most promising areas of partnership.
  • Canada has introduced a Defence Investment Agency and a new Defence Industrial Strategy to diversify procurement and reduce dependence on single-source suppliers.
  • India, with its growing manufacturing capabilities and defence industrial base, can become an important partner in:
    • Co-development of defence platforms.
    • Subsystem manufacturing.
    • Maintenance and sustainment of military equipment.
    • Joint research in drone technologies and advanced aerospace systems.

Strategic Technology Partnership

• Aerospace Cooperation
  • Canada possesses a mature full-spectrum aerospace industry, while India is among the world's largest aviation markets.
  • Collaboration can focus on:
    • Aerospace research and development.
    • Aircraft components.
    • Advanced manufacturing.
    • Innovation ecosystems.
    • Combining Canada's research expertise with India's manufacturing scale can create globally competitive capabilities.
• Space Cooperation
  • Both countries possess advanced space capabilities that can strengthen defence and civilian applications.
  • Potential areas include:
    • Satellite technologies.
    • Space robotics.
    • Earth observation systems.
    • Maritime surveillance using Canada's RADARSAT
    • These technologies can enhance maritime domain awareness and regional security in the Indo-Pacific.

Critical Minerals: Foundation of Defence Security

• Modern defence technologies depend heavily on secure access to critical minerals.
• Canada possesses abundant reserves of rare earth elements, uranium, cobalt, helium, and tungsten, making it one of the world's leading suppliers.
• India's expanding manufacturing and clean-energy sectors require reliable access to these strategic resources.
• The Canada–India Memorandum of Understanding on the Critical Minerals Value Chain provides a framework for:
  • Diversified supply chains.
  • Secure mineral sourcing.
  • Industrial cooperation.
  • Economic resilience.
  • National security.
• This partnership reduces dependence on vulnerable global supply chains while supporting defence manufacturing.

Strategic Significance for Both Countries

• Greater defence cooperation offers several mutual benefits:
  • Enhances Indo-Pacific security.
  • Strengthens economic security alongside national security.
  • Diversifies defence supply chains.
  • Promotes innovation and advanced technology development.
  • Supports indigenous defence manufacturing.
  • Encourages resilience against geopolitical disruptions.
  • Expands cooperation in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, autonomous systems, and space technologies.

Challenges

• Despite growing opportunities, certain challenges remain:
  • Historical political disagreements affecting bilateral trust.
  • Regulatory and export-control complexities.
  • Differences in defence procurement systems.
  • Competition from other strategic partners.
  • Need for sustained political commitment and institutional coordination.

Way Forward

• To unlock the full potential of the partnership, both countries should:
  • Institutionalise regular Defence Dialogues.
  • Expand joint military exercises.
  • Promote joint research and development.
  • Increase collaboration in cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, and space security.
  • Strengthen industrial partnerships through technology transfer and co-production.
  • Operationalize the Critical Minerals Value Chain for secure supply chains.
  • Encourage greater collaboration between academia, industry, and defence establishments.

Conclusion

• Canada and India share democratic values, complementary economic strengths, and common strategic interests in maintaining a stable international order.
• Their partnership extends beyond traditional defence cooperation to include advanced technologies, critical minerals, space, aerospace, and resilient industrial ecosystems.
• As geopolitical competition intensifies and warfare becomes increasingly technology-driven, a stronger Canada–India defence partnership can contribute significantly to regional stability, economic resilience, and global security while advancing the long-term strategic interests of both nations.

Why in news?

India has secured a long-term uranium supply deal with Australia, marking a key step toward operationalising the India-Australia Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, signed nearly 12 years ago.

The deal follows similar long-term uranium agreements with Canada and Kazakhstan signed earlier this year, reflecting India's push to diversify and secure fuel supplies for its nuclear power expansion.

While the volume of uranium oxide (yellowcake) to be supplied and the duration of the agreement have not been disclosed, the deal is part of a broader strategy to secure fuel amid India's ambitious nuclear expansion plans.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India's Nuclear Power Targets
• India's Current Uranium Sourcing
• The NSG Waiver and Expanding Partnerships
• Why India Depends on Imports?
• Conclusion

India's Nuclear Power Targets

• India aims to expand its civil nuclear power capacity to 100 gigawatt-electric (GWe) by
• Last year, the government opened the tightly regulated civil nuclear sector to greater private participation to support this goal.

India's Current Uranium Sourcing

• Uranium, though a common element found worldwide, requires several processing stages before becoming usable nuclear fuel: Mining and milling; Conversion; Enrichment (where required); Fuel fabrication.
• India's indigenous Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which run on natural uranium, source fuel through a mix of domestic production and imports.
• In contrast, enriched uranium used in India's two Light Water Reactor (LWR) plants, Tarapur and Kudankulam, is entirely imported.
• Domestic reserves
  • India's uranium oxide reserves stand at around 4.3 lakh tonnes, spread across 47 deposits in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
  • The state-owned Uranium Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL) holds the mandate to mine and process uranium, operating major mines at Jaduguda and Turamdih (Jharkhand) and Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh).
• The supply gap
  • Despite these reserves, domestic sources meet the uranium requirement for only 2.4 GWe out of India's total 8.7 GWe nuclear capacity; the rest depends on imports.
  • A Ministry of Power committee, tasked with preparing a roadmap for 100 GW capacity by 2047, estimated that India will need an additional 8,029 tonnes of natural uranium and 1,045 tonnes of enriched uranium annually by 2047.

The NSG Waiver and Expanding Partnerships

• India's ability to import uranium was unlocked in 2008, when the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) granted it a "clean waiver", making India the only non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) to enjoy such trading privileges.
• Import trends
  • Between 2008-09 and 2024-25, India imported a total of 18,842.60 metric tonnes of uranium (as ore concentrate, natural uranium dioxide pellets, and enriched uranium dioxide pellets) for reactors under IAEA safeguards.
  • In 2024-25, nuclear plants generated 56,631.48 million units of electricity, of which 39,180 million units came from imported uranium.
  • The estimated requirement of imported natural uranium for operating and proposed safeguarded PHWRs is around 9,000 metric tonnes during 2025-2033.
• Current and emerging suppliers
  • India currently imports uranium from Russia and Uzbekistan.
  • Cameco Corp. (Canada) signed a $2.6-billion supply agreement in March; shipments are expected to begin next year.
  • Kazatomprom (Kazakhstan), the world's largest uranium producer, agreed in February to sell a substantial volume to India. Both Cameco and Kazatomprom were major suppliers to India until 2020-21.
  • France supplied uranium ores and concentrates in 2025-26, while the US supplied similar imports in 2024-25.

Why India Depends on Imports?

• The core reason is economic: mining and processing domestic uranium into ore concentrate costs three to four times more than importing it internationally, largely due to the poor grade of uranium ore found in India.
• However, the Ministry of Power committee cautioned that the global push toward nuclear power could drive up international uranium prices in the coming years.
• It recommended that India consider enhancing domestic uranium production, even if costly, to maintain energy security, potentially through additional government equity infusion into UCIL to facilitate its expansion.

Conclusion

India's push to diversify uranium imports, from Australia to Canada and Kazakhstan, reflects the reality that domestic reserves alone cannot sustain its 100 GWe nuclear ambition by 2047.

Balancing import dependence with long-term investment in domestic uranium production will be central to ensuring both energy security and the pace of India's nuclear expansion.

Why in news?

Fighting between the US and Iran has resumed after a fragile ceasefire, with the conflict's second phase centred almost entirely on control of the Strait of Hormuz, the strategic waterway through which 20% of the world's energy supply flows.

The renewed hostilities have significant stakes for India, given its large expatriate population in West Asia and its dependence on energy imports through the strait.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background: The Ceasefire and MoU
• How Iran Asserted Control?
• The Omani Route Controversy
• Breakdown of Doha Talks
• Why Iran Won't Back Down?
• Military Lessons from the Conflict
• Stakes for India

Background: The Ceasefire and MoU

• The US and Iran agreed to a ceasefire on June 14, followed by a MoU signed on June 17. Key terms included:
  • Iran would allow ships free passage for 60 days through the Strait of Hormuz.
  • Iran would work with Oman to define the strait's future administration and maritime services.
• However, tensions emerged almost immediately, suggesting the two sides never truly agreed on the strait's long-term status.

How Iran Asserted Control?

• Two days after the MoU, Iran's Persian Gulf Strait Authority (PGSA), established in May, circulated terms reasserting itself as the nodal transit authority, requiring vessels to hold passage permits and PGSA-approved insurance.
• Though free initially, fees were reserved for later, effectively formalising Iran's stake in the strait's management.
• While US-Iran delegations met in Switzerland on June 21 and sanctions were lifted the next day. But the PGSA, already sanctioned, was never explicitly relieved — leaving shipping firms wary of dealing with it.

The Omani Route Controversy

• Later, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), working with Oman, announced a temporary corridor: a southern route via Oman alongside Iran's preferred northern route.
• This effectively formalised the Omani route without Iran's consultation, prompting Tehran to call any route other than its own "unauthorised and dangerous."

Breakdown of Doha Talks

• Later, US and Iranian officials met in Doha, where Iran and Oman reportedly proposed a voluntary toll modelled on the Malacca-Singapore Straits. The US rejected this in favour of restoring the pre-war status quo.
  • Notably, the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore clarified that the Malacca and Singapore Straits, like Hormuz, are "Straits Used for International Navigation," where no fees or tolls are levied on transit passage.
  • A voluntary Aids to Navigation Fund exists but is explicitly not a toll.
• Talks in Doha ultimately broke down over US resistance to any formal management arrangement for Hormuz.
• As a result, fighting resumed in mid-July.
  • On July 7, Iran struck three ships on the Omani route, including the India-bound Al Rekayyat, one of the largest LNG carriers built, an incident considered one of shipping's worst-case scenarios.
  • Trump declared the ceasefire over.

Why Iran Won't Back Down

• In the second phase, Iran has also targeted alternatives to the strait, hitting ship-to-ship transfers off UAE's Fujairah pipeline and pushing the Houthis to disrupt Saudi Arabia's East-West pipeline route via Red Sea attacks.
• Despite the MoU's promise of economic relief for a sanctions-hit economy, Iran's resistance stems from two factors:
  • Distrust of US commitments — new leader Ayatollah Mojtaba Khamenei called Trump's signature "utterly worthless and devoid of credibility" after alleged repeated breaches.
  • The imperative to retain control over Hormuz, its most significant strategic leverage.
• Iran has also continued pushing for a formal transit fee, an Iranian Environmental Protection Agency official reportedly sought "environmental services" charges from ships, citing UNCLOS provisions, according to the Institute for the Study of War (ISW).

Military Lessons from the Conflict

• According to ISW, Iran has adapted its tactics, deploying high-speed, manoeuvrable missiles and increasingly using cluster munitions to compensate for accuracy issues seen in earlier strikes against Israel.
• For the US, the conflict has reinforced lessons from Afghanistan and Iraq: excessive, poorly targeted firepower tends to generate more adversaries rather than resolve conflict.

Stakes for India

• India faces both humanitarian and economic risks from the conflict:
  • Human cost: Fourteen Indians have died and two remain missing since the war began on February 28, mostly seafarers and workers in the Gulf. New Delhi has protested the loss of lives to both Iran and the US.
  • Economic impact: Rising energy prices linked to the conflict are already having an inflationary and market impact on India's economy.
• India has urged both parties to return to dialogue and diplomacy, cautioning against a global economic slowdown that would disproportionately hurt the Global South.

Conclusion

The US-Iran conflict's second phase shows that control over the Strait of Hormuz, not broader territorial ambitions, is now the central battleground.

With insurers pricing in continued risk and both sides digging in, a durable resolution remains elusive, leaving India exposed to rising energy costs and continued risk to its citizens working across the Gulf and at sea.

About India’s First Immersive Language Museum:

• Museum of Word, also known as Shabdalok, at the National Library campus in Kolkata, is India’s first immersive language museum.
• It was developed by the National Library under the Union Culture Ministry.
• It showcases the country’s linguistic heritage and traces the evolution of oral and written traditions through interactive, technology-driven exhibits.
• The first phase of the museum chronicles the diversity of Indian languages, scripts, and literature.
• Instead of being a conventional repository, it has been designed as an immersive cultural experience with digital displays, holograms, and motion-sensor technology to engage visitors.
• The museum has nine galleries that explore different facets of the history of languages and their influence on India’s civilization and culture.
• Shabdalok celebrates India’s 22 official languages and traces their journey from oral traditions and ancient manuscripts to printed works and modern electronic texts.
• One of its key attractions allows visitors to trace the evolution of words over centuries, illustrating how their pronunciation, meaning, and usage have changed over time.

About Aral Sea:

• It is a saline lake in Central Asia straddling the boundary between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to the south and north.
• It was once a large saltwater lake in Central Asia and the world’s fourth-largest body of inland water.
• The remnants of it nestle in the climatically inhospitable heart of Central Asia, to the east of the Caspian Sea.
• Formation:
  • The Aral Sea depression was formed toward the end of the Neogene Period.
  • It was made by waters from the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya rivers that were dependent on glacial melt.
• Climate:
  • The Aral Sea is located within the harsh climate region of Central Asia.
  • The area experiences a desert-continental climate, characterized by hot summers, cold winters, and varying diurnal air temperature.
• Reason for its Disappearance:
  • The lake once covered large area between the Kyzylorda and Aktobe regions in Kazakhstan and the Karakalpakstan region of Uzbekistan.
  • However, the lake started shrinking in the 1960s, when the Soviet government decided to divert the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya, to irrigate the surrounding desert region.
  • By the 1980s, the Aral Sea had shed 80% of its volume, resulting in the extinction of native fish species and severe ecological degradation, including the emergence of the Aralkum Desert.
  • Today it is on the verge of complete disappearance.

About Hoollongapar Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Jorhat district of Assam.
• It is named after the Hoolock Gibbon, the only ape species found in India. It has the thickest gibbon populations in Assam.
• River: The Bhogdoi River creates a waterlogged region dominated by semi-hydrophytic plants along the border of the sanctuary.
• Vegetation: Most of the vegetation is evergreen in character and is composed of several canopy layers.
• Flora: Hollong trees, Nahar trees and many shrubs.
• Fauna:
  • It is home to the only nocturnal primate found in the northeast Indian states, the Bengal slow loris.
  • Other primates include the stump-tailed macaque, northern pig-tailed macaque, eastern Assamese macaque, rhesus macaque, and capped langur.
  • Also found at the sanctuary are Indian elephants, tigers, leopards, jungle cats, wild boar, three types of civet, four types of squirrel, etc.
  • The sanctuary is home to many species of birds, including several rare and endangered species, such as the white-winged wood duck, the Bengal florican, and the great hornbill.

About Narwar Fort:

• It is a historical fort located in the Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh.
• It is spread atop the Vindhya ranges.
• Madhav National Park is located a short distance to the west.
• History:
  • The Narwar town, which lies below the fort, is said to have been the capital of Raja Nala of the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata, and it was called Nalapura until the 12th century.
  • Constructed by the Kachwaha Rajputs in the 10th century, Narwar Fort has witnessed the rise and fall of various dynasties.
  • Successively held by the Kachwaha, Parihara, and Tomara Rajputs, it eventually fell under Mughal rule in the 16th century.
  • It was conquered by the Maratha chief Scindia in the early 19th century.
• Architecture:
  • The interior of the fort is divided by cross walls into four sections known as “ahata” and “dholaahata,”
  • The architecture of the fort and palaces is basically Rajput in style with flat ceilings, fluted columns, and multifold arches.
  • The inner walls of the palaces have been decorated with bright paint and glass beads.
  • Outside the walled town are memorial pillars of the Tomar chiefs.