About Van Allen Probe A:

• NASA’s Van Allen Probes mission was the first mission to use two spacecraft in tandem to study Earth’s radiation belts.
• Originally designed for a two-year mission, the Van Allen Probes A and B gathered unprecedented data on Earth’s two permanent radiation belts — named for scientist James Van Allen — for almost seven years.
• From 2012 to 2019, the spacecraft and its twin, Van Allen Probe B, flew through the Van Allen belts, rings of charged particles trapped by Earth’s magnetic field, to understand how particles were gained and lost.
• The belts shield Earth from cosmic radiation, solar storms, and the constantly streaming solar wind that are harmful to humans and can damage technology, so understanding them is important.
• By having two spacecraft with identical instruments, with one followed by the other along nearly the same path, researchers could measure changes that occur in Earth’s radiation belts over time and through space, providing insights into the physical dynamics of the radiation belts and changes that occur in this critical region of space.
• NASA ended the mission after the two spacecraft ran out of fuel and were no longer able to orient themselves toward the Sun.

About International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):

• It is the world’s leading intergovernmental organisation for scientific and technical cooperation in the nuclear field.
• The IAEA is an autonomous organization within the United Nations system.
• It reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and the UN Security Council.
• Its primary goal is to ensure that nuclear energy is not diverted for weapons purposes.
• The IAEA works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.
• It is widely known as the world's "Atoms for Peace and Development"​ organization.
• Member Countries: The agency currently has 180 member states, reflecting its wide international mandate and credibility.
• Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
• Institutional Structure:
  • General Conference: The General Conference, composed of all member states, meets annually to approve budgets and set general policy directions.
  • Board of Governors: The Board of Governors, comprising 35 members, meets about five times a year to: approve safeguards agreements, carry out statutory functions, and appoint the Director General.
  • Secretariat: It is led by the Director General and handles the IAEA’s daily operations.
• Functions:
  • Promoting Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy: The IAEA encourages the use of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, emphasizing sustainability and safety.
  • Safety and Security: The agency establishes safety standards and provides assistance to ensure that nuclear operations are conducted safely and securely.
  • Verification: The IAEA conducts inspections and monitoring to verify compliance with nuclear non-proliferation agreements.

About Beas River:

• It is a river passing through the northern Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
• It is one of the five rivers that give Punjab (“Five Rivers”) its name.
• It was known as Vipas in the past, meaning the “Unfettered” river.
• The Beas River was the approximate eastern limit of Alexander the Great’s invasion of India in 326 BCE.
• Course:
  • The river originates in the Rohtang Pass of the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh.
  • From there it flows south through the Kullu Valley, receiving tributaries from the flanking mountains, and then turns west to flow past Mandi into the Kangra Valley.
  • After crossing the valley, the Beas enters Punjab state and veers south and then southwest to its confluence with the Sutlej River at Harike.
• Major Tributaries: Bain, Banganga, Luni, and Uhal, along with Banner, Chakki, Gaj, Harla, Mamuni, Parvati, Patlikuhlal, Sainj, Suketi, and Tirthan.
• Dams: The Pong Dam, also known as the Beas Dam, is an earth-fill embankment dam constructed on the river Beas in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.

About Chelonus (Carinichelonus) mahadeb:

• It is a new species of parasitic wasp.
• It was discovered from Nahortoli Tea Estate in Assam.
• Parasitic wasps of the genus Chelonus are tiny insects but play an important ecological role.
  • They are known as egg–larval parasitoids, meaning they lay their eggs inside the eggs of other insects, usually moths and butterflies.
  • The developing wasp larva eventually consumes the host, helping regulate insect populations
  • Because many moth larvae are major agricultural pests, species of Chelonus are often considered beneficial insects that contribute to natural pest control in crop ecosystems, including plantations.
• The discovery is notable because the subgenus Carinichelonus is extremely rare and poorly documented worldwide.
• It is only the second new species of this subgenus described from India in recent times.

About Peptides:

• Peptides are chains of amino acids that are naturally found in the body.
• The amino acids in a peptide are connected to one another in a sequence by bonds called peptide bonds.
• Peptides vs. Proteins:
  • Proteins and peptides are fundamental components of cells that carry out important biological functions.
  • Both proteins and peptides are made up of amino acids, but peptides contain far fewer amino acids than proteins.
  • Traditionally, peptides are defined as molecules that consist of between 2 and 50 amino acids.
  • Meanwhile, proteins are long molecules made up of multiple peptide subunits, and are also known as polypeptides.
  • In addition, peptides tend to be less well defined in structure than proteins, which can adopt complex conformations known as secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
  • Proteins can be digested by enzymes (other proteins) into short peptide fragments.
• Functions of Peptides:
  • The body makes lots of different peptides, each of which has a different role.
  • They may provide pro-aging support, anti-inflammatory, or muscle-building properties.
  • Some peptides act as hormones, which are molecules that when released from cells, affect other areas of the body.
  • Due to the potential health benefits of peptides, many supplements are available that contain peptides that manufacturers have derived either from food or made synthetically.

What are Amino Acids?

• Amino acids are molecules that combine to form proteins.
• Amino acids and proteins are the building blocks of life.
• There are 20 different amino acids.
• A protein consists of one or more chains of amino acids (called polypeptides) whose sequence is encoded in a gene.
• Some amino acids can be synthesized in the body, but others (essential amino acids) cannot and must be obtained from a person’s diet.
• The nine essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. 

About Nevado Ojos del Salado:

• Location: It is located in the Andes Mountain Range on the boundary between Chile and Argentina. 
• It is also the highest mountain (6,893 meters) in Chile.
• Features OF Nevado Ojos del Salado:
  • It is the world’s highest active stratovolcano.
  • It was largely formed from the accumulation of lava flows and explosive volcanic material.
  • Climate: The Mountain’s climate is high desert.
  • The upper part of the mountain features a set of craters and elongated volcanic peaks.
  • Due to its location near the Atacama Desert, the mountain has very dry conditions with snow usually only remaining on the peak during winter.
  • There is a permanent crater lake about 100 m (330 ft) in diameter at an elevation of 6,390 m (20,960 ft) on the eastern side of the mountain.

About National Shipping Board:

• It is a permanent statutory body established in 1959, under Section 4 of Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
• Function: It advise the Government of India on matters related to shipping including the development.
• It has played a very distinguished role in the Maritime development of the country, as its deliberation and recommendations have contributed to the evolution of a sound and pragmatic National Maritime Policy over the years.
• Composition:
  • It consists of Chairman and Members.
  • Six Members elected by Parliament (Four from the Lok Sabha and two from Rajya Sabha from amongst its Members).
  • Tenure: The Chairman and other members of the Board held office for a period of two years.
  • Such Members of other members not exceeding sixteen as the Central Government may think fit to appoint on the Board to represent the Central Government, Ship-owners, and Seamen.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.

About Kurumba Painting:

• It is a prehistoric art form, estimated to be over 3000 years old.
• It originates from the Kurumba tribe in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
• The art was traditionally drawn on rocks and in caves across the high hills of the Nilgiris.
• Raw Materials and Tools Used:
  • Kurumba paintings use natural pigments sourced from the forest.
  • Yellow-brown and black pigments come from Vengai tree resin, while green pigments are derived from crushed leaves.
  • Artists use fine twigs, bamboo sticks, and natural fiber brushes for application.
  • The paintings are traditionally done on walls, fabric, and handmade paper.
• Design and Color:
  • Kurumba tribal paintings use natural colors—green from leaves, red and white from soil, and black from tree bark—applied with cloth on cow dung-coated walls.
  • The art features simple, linear motifs with dots, lines, and geometric shapes, depicting huts, animals, and community life.
  • Themes center around spiritual beliefs, rituals, festivals, and daily activities.
  • This minimalist yet expressive style preserves the tribe’s cultural heritage and reflects their deep spiritual bond with nature.
• Product Range: Wall murals, decorative panels, ritual paintings, cloth artworks.

About Cobalt:

• It is a hard, lustrous, silver-grey metal.
• Properties:
  • It is a ferromagnetic strategic alloying metal.
  • It is a chemical element with the symbol Co and atomic no.27.
  • It is associated mostly with copper, nickel and arsenic ores.
  • Cobalt is extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious metals.
• Major World reserves of cobalt: Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia, Canada, Philippines and Cuba.
• Occurrences of cobalt in India: Jharkhand, Odisha, Rajasthan, Nagaland and Madhya Pradesh.
• Applications:
  • Major use of cobalt is in metallurgical applications, in Special alloy/Super alloy Industry, in magnets and cutting tools industries.
  • Cobalt is used as precursors (cobalt compounds) for cathodes in rechargeable batteries.
  • It is also used in powerful magnets, cutting tools and high-strength alloys in the aerospace, energy and defence sectors.
  • Cobalt compounds have been used since antiquity as a pigment (cobalt-blue) for pottery, glass, paints and other media.