Why in News?

Nearly 21 GW — about 9% of India's installed renewable energy capacity — is running on temporary grid connections due to delayed dedicated transmission infrastructure, putting project revenues and clean energy targets at risk.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Core Problem
• Understanding the GNA-TGNA Framework
• Financial Stress on Developers
• Risk of NPAs and Systemic Impact

The Core Problem

• Renewable energy capacity is being added faster than the transmission network needed to evacuate that power.
• Around 12 GW faces restrictions on power evacuation during peak solar generation hours.
  • Power evacuation refers to transferring electricity generated at a plant to the point of consumption.
• In FY26, about 6,900 GWh of clean electricity faced restrictions due to this mismatch; during April–June alone, 8,133 GWh of solar electricity was curtailed.

Understanding the GNA-TGNA Framework

• Under the General Network Access (GNA) framework, inter-state transmission-connected projects with long-term GNA get firm evacuation rights — that is, guaranteed access to send their power into the grid.
• Projects awaiting dedicated transmission infrastructure operate under Temporary General Network Access (T-GNA), a stopgap arrangement that allows scheduling of power only when spare capacity exists.
• During congestion, long-term GNA projects get priority, forcing T-GNA projects to curtail (reduce) generation — by as much as 70-80% of capacity, according to developers.
• Electricity curtailment means the intentional reduction of power output from renewable generators.

Financial Stress on Developers

• Solar power enjoys "must-run" status in India, but can still be backed down for grid security, technical constraints, or transmission bottlenecks.
• Developers get compensated for grid-security-related curtailment, but not for T-GNA-related curtailment — directly eroding revenues.
• In Rajasthan, curtailment has reportedly touched 90-95% for some projects, with roughly 4 GW of state capacity affected.
• Developers are increasingly funding operations through equity and reserves rather than actual power revenue — an unsustainable model over time.
• As a result, the experts have demanded moratorium on principal repayment during transmission delays, interest-free/concessional bridge financing, extended loan tenure without credit downgrades, and debt restructuring without asset reclassification.

Risk of NPAs and Systemic Impact

• Industry experts warn affected projects could turn into Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) if the issue persists.
• They noted generators lose over 50% of generation during peak solar hours due to T-GNA curtailment — a rate unsustainable beyond a few months for loan servicing.
• 12 public sector banks, along with IREDA, PFC, REC, NaBFID, IIFCL, and SIDBI, cumulatively deployed about Rs 5.08 lakh crore in the renewable sector over FY25-26 — meaning financial institutions also bear risk if project viability deteriorates.
• Analysts have flagged that continued slippage in transmission commissioning could hit capacity additions, cash flows, Internal Rate of Returns (IRRs), and investor confidence.

Conclusion

India's renewable energy growth is being outpaced by transmission infrastructure, trapping a significant share of green capacity in a temporary, low-priority access regime.

Left unaddressed, this mismatch threatens developer solvency, banking sector exposure, and India's broader clean energy targets — making transmission planning as critical as capacity addition itself.

Why in news?

The US-Iran conflict has triggered significant strategic realignments among Gulf Arab states, ranging from renewed defence pacts with Pakistan to a rekindled Houthi-Saudi confrontation, with implications for regional stability and India's energy security.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background: The US-Iran Standoff
• Fallout One: Gulf States Deepen Ties with Pakistan
• Fallout Two: Resumption of Houthi-Saudi Hostilities
• Why Saudi Arabia Seeks Stability?

Background: The US-Iran Standoff

• US strikes targeted Iran's capability to threaten shipping in the Strait of Hormuz, after Iran rejected American proposals for a new shipping channel through Omani waters and targeted non-compliant vessels.
• Despite the offensive, Iran retains control over Hormuz, and Tehran-Muscat talks to operationalise Article 5 (joint Iran-Oman administration of the Strait) continue — now expanded to include Saudi Arabia.
  • This was seen in Iranian FM Araghchi's talks with Saudi counterpart Faisal bin Farhan.
• Washington remains incentivised to strike Iranian nuclear and Hormuz-related targets again, as its self-defined objectives remain unmet.

Fallout One: Gulf States Deepen Ties with Pakistan

• Recently, Kuwait ratified a June 2023 Defence Cooperation Agreement (DCA) with Pakistan for five years, covering training, intelligence sharing, logistics, and defence technology exchange.
• Qatar committed to deepening security cooperation with Pakistan during bilateral talks in Doha.
• Unlike the Saudi-Pakistan Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) of September 2025, Kuwait's DCA does not bind either side to defend the other if attacked.
  • It should be noted that the SMDA has not translated into mutual military action (Pakistan has not struck Iran or Houthi territory; Saudi Arabia has not struck Afghanistan).
  • This suggests its real purpose is entrenching Pakistan's role in long-term capability-building rather than immediate collective defence.
• For Gulf states, securing dependable defence partners for domestic capability development outweighs intra-Gulf political differences.
• Pakistan's economic dependence on these states adds a layer of leverage for the Gulf side.

Fallout Two: Resumption of Houthi-Saudi Hostilities

• Fighting resumed recently when the Saudi-backed Yemeni government-in-exile bombed Sana'a airport, reportedly to block an Iranian aircraft landing.
• The Houthis retaliated with ballistic missiles into Saudi territory and declared a naval blockade in the Bab-el-Mandeb strait — unprecedented since the 2022 truce.
• Saudi Arabia struck the Houthi-controlled Hodeida port, handling over 70% of Yemen's trade and humanitarian aid, provoking Houthi strikes on Saudi Aramco facilities and a partial shutdown of the 400,000 bpd Jazan Refinery.
• For the first time, both the Red Sea and the Strait of Hormuz were simultaneously under conflict-related disruption.
• Riyadh, however, is unlikely to seek full-scale war, instead preferring engagement — evident in Saudi participation in US strikes on Iran-backed militias in Iraq rather than direct retaliation against the Houthis.

Why Saudi Arabia Seeks Stability?

• Recently, Saudi Arabia signed a 123 Agreement with the US for civil nuclear cooperation — raising the stakes for regional calm, since a Houthi strike on a future nuclear facility would be far more dangerous than attacks on oil infrastructure.
• Recent drone strike on the UAE's Barakah nuclear plant had already revived post-Fukushima safety concerns among Arab states.
• The 123 Agreement may also strengthen Iran's own case for enrichment rights, potentially reducing its willingness to concede ground in nuclear talks.
• Preventing a "broken windows effect" on Arab economies remains a key regional priority even amid mounting US war fatigue.
  • If the current conflict (Houthi attacks, US-Iran strikes, disruptions to oil facilities and shipping) is allowed to drag on and damage confidence, it could trigger a similar spiral:
    • Investors start losing confidence
    • Businesses and tourists stay away
    • Oil and trade routes seem unsafe
  • This damages the reputation and stability of the whole region, not just the areas directly hit.

Conclusion

The US-Iran conflict has exposed the fragility of Gulf security, pushing states like Kuwait and Qatar toward Pakistan for capability-building, while Saudi Arabia balances renewed Houthi threats against its nuclear ambitions.

For India, sustained instability in the Hormuz-Red Sea corridor threatens energy imports and regional equities.

Why in the News?

• Parliament has passed the Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Amendment Bill, 2026, introducing tougher punishments, fast-track courts, and time-bound investigation and trial in paper leak cases.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Public Examinations Law (Background, 2024 Act Features, Amendment Bill Features, Significance, Challenges, etc.)

Public Examinations Law in India

• To tackle paper leaks and organised exam fraud, Parliament enacted the Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024.
• The law aimed to address unfair practices in major public examinations conducted by bodies such as:

• Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
• Staff Selection Commission (SSC)
• Railway Recruitment Board (RRB)
• Institute of Banking Personnel Selection (IBPS)
• National Testing Agency (NTA), including the NEET exam

• It was the first dedicated central law targeting question paper leaks, organised cheating, and exam-related fraud in public examinations.
• However, after the NEET-UG paper leak in May 2026, public anger and student protests intensified.
• The controversy exposed weaknesses in the existing law, especially in relation to deterrence, speed of investigation, and disposal of cases.
• In response, the government moved to strengthen the law through the Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Amendment Bill, 2026.

Background of the 2024 Law

• The original 2024 Act provided punishments for individuals and organised groups using unfair means in public exams. Its main objective was to protect the transparency, credibility, and fairness of recruitment and entrance examinations.
• Under the earlier law:

• Individuals involved in unfair means faced imprisonment of 3 to 5 years and a fine up to Rs 10 lakh.
• In certain cases, penalties included a fine up to Rs 1 crore and a ban on exam-related responsibilities for four years.
• Organised crime related to exam fraud attracted imprisonment of at least 3 years and a fine of Rs 1 crore.
• In the gravest offences, punishment extended to 5 to 10 years imprisonment and a fine of Rs 1 crore.

• Even though the law existed, the recent paper leak controversy led to demands for harsher punishment, special courts, and faster justice delivery.

Public Examination Amendment Bill, 2026

• The Lok Sabha passed the Amendment Bill by voice vote, and the Rajya Sabha also cleared it by voice vote. The Bill strengthens the 2024 law in four important ways.
• Tougher Punishments
  • Punishment of 3 to 5 years and fine up to Rs 10 lakh has now been raised to 5 to 10 years imprisonment and fine up to Rs 50 lakh.
  • Punishment involving fine up to Rs 1 crore and a ban of four years has been enhanced to fine up to Rs 5 crore and a ban of eight years.
  • Punishment of at least 3 years imprisonment and Rs 1 crore fine has been raised to at least 5 years imprisonment and Rs 5 crore fine.
  • Punishment of 5 to 10 years imprisonment and Rs 1 crore fine has been strengthened to at least 7 years imprisonment and Rs 10 crore fine.
  • Thus, the law now provides a much stronger deterrent against organised paper leak networks.
• Statutory Backing for Fast-Track Courts
  • The Bill gives statutory backing to fast-track courts for trying offences under the Act.
  • This is significant because it moves beyond an executive announcement and embeds the fast-track mechanism directly in law. Once the amendment comes into force, all future offences under the Act can be tried by fast-track courts.
  • The government has already announced that such courts would initially be set up in the four High Courts where NEET-related cases are ongoing.
• Five-Month Timeline for Investigation and Trial
  • Another major feature is the imposition of a strict time frame:
    • Investigation must be completed within two months.
    • Trial must be completed within three months.
  • This means that a paper leak case should, in principle, reach a conclusion within five months.
• Provision for a Special Task Force
  • The Bill also empowers the Union government to establish a Special Task Force to investigate offences under the Act.
  • This is aimed at strengthening coordination, especially where paper leak networks operate across states or involve organised criminal syndicates.

Significance of the Bill

• The Amendment Bill is important because it attempts to address both substantive weakness and procedural delay.
• On the substantive side, it raises punishment sharply, especially in cases involving organised crime. On the procedural side, it introduces:
  • Fast-track adjudication
  • Statutory time limits
  • A Special Task Force
• This combination is meant to make the law not only stricter but also more effective in practice.
• The Bill also reflects a broader recognition that exam fraud is no longer a routine malpractice but a serious governance and public trust issue affecting merit, opportunity, and social justice.

Concerns and Challenges

• Even with stronger penalties, the real effectiveness of the law will depend on implementation.
• Some important challenges remain:
  • Whether investigations can genuinely be completed within two months.
  • Whether fast-track courts will have the capacity and staffing to meet the deadline.
  • Whether states and investigating agencies can coordinate effectively.
  • Whether digital and logistical vulnerabilities in examination systems are also corrected.
• Experience with other fast-track courts, including those under special laws such as POCSO, shows that pendency can still rise if infrastructure and staffing do not keep pace.

Why in News?

• The Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) has endorsed the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) decision directing Karnataka to release 3,500 cusecs of water to Tamil Nadu for 15 days (July 29–August 12, 2026).
• This amounts to nearly 4.5 thousand million cubic feet (tmc ft).
• The decision comes amid deficient southwest monsoon rainfall and severe water shortages in the Cauvery basin, reviving concerns over equitable sharing of river waters during distress years. 

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Institutional Framework for Cauvery Water Management
• How does the CWRC Decide Water Releases?
• Factors Behind the Latest Decision
• Divergent Responses from the Riparian States
• Key Challenges and Way Forward

Institutional Framework for Cauvery Water Management:

• The CWRC functions under the CWMA, which was established in 2018 to implement the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) Award (2007) as modified by the Supreme Court (2018).
• Statutory body: The CWMA is formed under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, operating under the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• Composition of CWRC:
  • Headquartered in New Delhi, it is headed by the Member (Water Resources), CWMA.
  • Members include -
    • Chief Engineers of all Cauvery basin States.
    • Representatives from the India Meteorological Department (IMD), Central Water Commission (CWC) and Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare.
• Mandate and functions of CWRC: The committee performs both regulatory and technical functions, including -
• Monitoring daily water levels, inflows and storage in eight major reservoirs -
  • Karnataka: Hemavathy, Harangi, Krishna-raja-sagara (KRS), Kabini.
  • Tamil Nadu: Mettur, Bhavanisagar, Amaravathy.
  • Kerala: Banasurasagar.
• Ensuring scheduled daily and monthly water releases as directed by CWMA.
• Preparing seasonal (Southwest Monsoon, Northeast Monsoon, Hot Weather) and annual water accounts.
• Reviewing compliance with previous directions and reassessing basin conditions through fortnightly meetings during the monsoon.
• CWDT: It was constituted by the Government of India on June 2, 1990, under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956.
• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: It is enacted under Article 262 of Constitution of India to resolve the water disputes that would arise in the use, control and distribution of an interstate river or river valley.

How does the CWRC Decide Water Releases?

• The committee relies on scientific hydro-meteorological assessment rather than fixed allocations during distress years.
• Key parameters include -
  • Rainfall received and IMD's forecast.
  • Live storage in reservoirs.
  • Reservoir inflows and outflows.
  • The river flows at Biligundulu (inter-State measuring point).
  • Water availability in intermediate catchments.
  • Compliance with earlier release orders.
• This data-driven approach seeks to balance drinking water, irrigation requirements and ecological considerations.

Factors Behind the Latest Decision:

• The CWRC considered multiple indicators before fixing the release at 3,500 cusecs -
  • Net inflows into Karnataka reservoirs were nearly 60% below the 30-year average.
  • River flow at Biligundulu showed a 90% deficit, indicating severe basin-wide stress.
  • IMD forecasts suggested continued weak rainfall, limiting future inflows.
  • Combined storage in Karnataka's four major reservoirs stood at 64.15 tmc ft against a capacity of 114.57 tmc ft.
• Considering these distress conditions, the committee opted for a quantity that would be operationally feasible while partially meeting Tamil Nadu's requirements.

Divergent Responses from the Riparian States:

• Karnataka's position:
  • The State has not commenced irrigation releases due to inadequate rainfall.
  • It considers the CWRC order burdensome under prevailing drought-like conditions.
  • The government is examining the possibility of appealing before the CWMA.
  • Farmers' organisations have demanded application of a "distress-sharing formula" instead of fixed allocations.
• Tamil Nadu's position:
  • Tamil Nadu views the ordered release as insufficient.
  • It argues Karnataka should release the entire deficit of 9.8 tmc ft calculated by the committee.
  • The kuruvai cultivation season requires nearly 100 tmc ft of water for about 4 lakh acres.
  • Mettur reservoir storage is around 36 tmc ft, of which nearly 10 tmc ft must be reserved for drinking water and dead storage.

Key Challenges and Way Forward:

• Challenges:
  • Absence of an agreed distress-sharing formula during deficient rainfall years.
  • Conflicting priorities between drinking water, irrigation and reservoir conservation.
  • Increasing uncertainty due to climate variability affecting monsoon reliability.
  • Balancing legal water entitlements with ground-level hydrological realities.
  • Recurring inter-State political tensions despite an institutional dispute-resolution mechanism.
• Way forward:
  • Develop a mutually agreed distress-sharing formula to proportionately distribute shortages among basin States during drought years.
  • Strengthen real-time hydrological monitoring, transparent data sharing and scientific forecasting.
  • Promote cooperative federalism through continuous dialogue between Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the CWMA.
  • Encourage water-use efficiency, micro-irrigation, crop diversification and basin-level integrated water resources management.
  • Institutionalise periodic reviews to ensure adaptive water allocation under changing climatic conditions.

Context

• The Bay of Bengal has emerged as a strategic centre of the Indo-Pacific, linking South Asia, Southeast Asia, and major global trade and energy routes.
• Alongside increasing geopolitical competition, the region faces climate-induced disasters, illegal fishing, cyber threats, marine pollution, and supply chain disruptions.
• These transnational challenges require regional cooperation rather than unilateral responses.
• India's SHANTI (Securing Holistic Advancement through Norms, Trust and Integrity) initiative seeks to establish a rules-based, trust-driven framework for maritime governance.

Why the Bay of Bengal Matters?

• Historically, the Bay connected civilizations through commerce and cultural exchange.
• Today, it is central to India's Act East Policy, provides access to the strategic Malacca Strait, and connects the eastern Indian Ocean with global maritime routes.
• China's expanding regional presence, driven by its Malacca Dilemma, has intensified strategic competition.
• Consequently, the Bay has become a vital arena where maritime security, economic connectivity, and regional governance converge.

Need for SHANTI

• Despite growing maritime capabilities, the region lacks common norms, coordinated institutions, and collective mechanisms to address shared challenges.
• Countries face similar concerns, including disaster risk reduction, Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR), Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing, coastal erosion, undersea cable protection, Blue Economy development, and climate adaptation.
• Since these issues transcend national boundaries, they require coordinated regional action based on cooperation and mutual trust.

Evolution of India's Maritime Vision

• SAGAR (2015) introduced the vision of Security and Growth for All in the Region, promoting inclusive maritime cooperation and equitable development.
• MAHASAGAR (2025) expanded this vision to the wider Indo-Pacific and the Global South, recognising the interconnected nature of maritime security.
• SHANTI (2026) provides the operational framework built on Norms, Trust, and Integrity.
  • It shifts the focus from military competition to demand-driven cooperation, institution-building, long-term resilience, and governance of the shared maritime commons.
  • Together, these initiatives position India as a preferred security partner and first responder in the region.

Bay of Bengal as the Ideal Laboratory

• The Bay of Bengal is well suited for implementing SHANTI because it is relatively cooperative compared to the conflict-prone western Indian Ocean.
• Its littoral states share common environmental, economic, and security challenges, while institutions such as BIMSTEC already provide a foundation for collaboration.
• Rather than creating new organisations, SHANTI aims to strengthen coordination among existing mechanisms, with India acting as a regional convener through regional stewardship instead of dominance.

From Principles to Practice

• Progress towards implementing SHANTI is already visible.
• At the 2026 BIMSTEC National Security Advisers' Meeting, member states adopted common principles for maritime law enforcement and HADR.
• And they agreed to conduct the first joint maritime security exercise in November 2026, and continued discussions on a White Shipping Information Sharing Agreement.
• These initiatives strengthen maritime domain awareness, build confidence, and promote rules-based cooperation across the Bay.

Benefits and Challenges

• SHANTI can strengthen maritime governance, improve disaster preparedness, enhance climate resilience, safeguard critical maritime infrastructure, promote the Blue Economy, and deepen trust among regional partners.
• However, challenges remain, including strategic rivalry among major powers, institutional fragmentation, varying national priorities, limited financial and technological capacities, and the need to ensure that India's leadership remains inclusive and non-hegemonic.

Way Forward

• India should institutionalise regular BIMSTEC maritime exercises, expand maritime information-sharing networks.
• Additionally, India should establish regional disaster response mechanisms, promote joint Blue Economy projects, strengthen environmental protection.
• There is a need to build capacity among smaller littoral states, and encourage rules-based maritime governance consistent with international law.

Conclusion

• The Bay of Bengal is a shared maritime commons whose future depends on cooperation rather than competition.
• Through SHANTI, India seeks to promote Norms, Trust, Integrity, Resilience, and Shared Responsibility as the foundation of regional security.
• If implemented effectively through institutions such as BIMSTEC, SHANTI can transform the Bay into a model of cooperative maritime governance for the wider Indo-Pacific, advancing a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based maritime order.

Context

• India has emerged as a global leader in Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) by integrating Aadhaar, Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and DEPA/Account Aggregator into an interoperable ecosystem.
• Unlike countries that excel in individual digital systems, India has combined digital identity, payments, and data-sharing at an unprecedented scale.
• The next step is to extend this model to Artificial Intelligence (AI) by making intelligence a foundational public utility that is affordable, accessible, and interoperable.

India’s DPI Success Story

• India’s DPI has transformed governance and financial inclusion through Aadhaar, which has enrolled over 1.4 billion people and enabled low-cost digital identity verification.
• UPI has revolutionised payments by processing nearly 20 billion monthly transactions at minimal cost.
• Between 2016 and 2019, affordable mobile data connected nearly 500 million Indians, accelerating digital inclusion, Direct Benefit Transfers (DBTs), startups, e-commerce, and digital governance.
• India’s success lies in creating competitive digital markets supported by strong public infrastructure rather than direct subsidies.

AI as the Fourth Digital Public Infrastructure

• AI is becoming the next essential infrastructure after identity, payments, and data.
• Instead of competing with global technology giants in expensive AI model training, India should focus on making AI inference inexpensive and widely accessible.
• The objective is to reduce the cost of using AI through public infrastructure, enabling innovation across education, healthcare, agriculture, governance, and industry.

India’s Unequal Position in the Global AI Economy

• India contributes significantly to the global AI ecosystem through its engineering talent, researchers, multilingual data, and data annotation workforce.
• However, Indian start-ups depend heavily on costly foreign AI models and proprietary APIs, making them vulnerable to external pricing and policy decisions.
• This resembles the historical pattern of exporting raw materials while importing high-value finished products.
• India must move from being a supplier of AI inputs to becoming a producer of AI capabilities.

Building India’s National AI Token Economy

• Affordable Compute Infrastructure
  • The IndiaAI Mission, with an allocation of around ₹10,372 crores, seeks to build AI infrastructure through public-private partnerships.
  • More than 38,000 GPUs have been on boarded, with a target of 1,00,000 GPUs, providing subsidised compute access to startups and researchers.
  • AI infrastructure should also be integrated into the National Electricity Plan, supported by renewable and nuclear energy to ensure reliable, low-cost power for data centres.
• Open-Source Foundation Models
  • Affordable computing must be complemented by open-source Large Language Models (LLMs).
  • India should utilise anonymised public datasets such as legal judgments, agricultural information, and educational content in all 22 Scheduled Languages to develop indigenous AI models.
  • AI systems created using public funding should be released under open-weights licences, encouraging innovation while reducing dependence on proprietary foreign platforms.
• Unified Intelligence Interface (UII)
  • India should establish a UII based on the principles of UPI.
  • A common AI API gateway would provide interoperability, identity verification, consent management, billing, and safety standards.
  • Government agencies, educational institutions, start-ups, and businesses could access multiple AI services through a single platform, reducing costs and encouraging competition.

AI Token Entitlements for Inclusive Growth

• A national freemium AI model could provide free monthly AI tokens to verified students, researchers, and startups through Aadhaar authentication.
• Larger enterprises could pay commercial rates, creating a sustainable funding model.
• AI support for schools, research institutions, and public services would accelerate innovation and reduce barriers to technology adoption.

Socio-Economic Benefits of Near-Free Intelligence

• Affordable AI can significantly improve healthcare, education, agriculture, MSMEs, and governance.
• AI-assisted healthcare can expand medical access, personalised tutoring can benefit millions of students, multilingual AI can assist farmers in accessing government services, and small businesses can utilise AI for accounting, marketing, and compliance.
• AI-powered governance can further enhance efficient citizen service delivery.

Challenges

• Key challenges include high infrastructure costs, dependence on imported semiconductor technologies, data privacy, cybersecurity, algorithmic bias, responsible AI governance, and sustainable financing.
• Addressing these issues is essential for developing secure, inclusive, and trustworthy AI infrastructure.

Way Forward

• India should expand the IndiaAI Mission, promote open-source AI, invest in AI-specific energy infrastructure, develop Indic AI models.
• Also, India should establish the Unified Intelligence Interface, strengthen AI governance under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, and encourage collaboration among government, academia, startups, and industry.

Conclusion

• India’s success with Digital Public Infrastructure demonstrates how public digital goods can reduce costs and expand participation.
• Extending this model to AI can democratise intelligence through affordable compute, open-source models, AI token entitlements, and a Unified Intelligence Interface.
• By making intelligence widely accessible, India can strengthen technological sovereignty, develop innovation, and ensure that AI becomes a powerful engine of inclusive economic and social development rather than a privilege available only to a few.

About Vitamin A:

• It is a fat-soluble vitamin primarily stored in the liver.
• Although vitamin A is often considered a single nutrient, it is actually a group of fat-soluble compounds, including retinol, retinal, and retinyl esters.
• There are two types of vitamin A that are found in the diet.
  • Preformed vitamin A is found in animal products such as meat, fish, poultry, and dairy foods.
  • Precursors to vitamin A, also known as provitamin A, are found in plant-based foods such as fruits and vegetables. The most common type of provitamin A is beta-carotene.
• In order to use these two types of vitamin A, the body must convert them into the active forms of the vitamin, retinal and retinoic acid.
• Foods with the highest levels of vitamin A include:
  • Beef liver and other organ meats
  • Some types of fish such as herring and salmon and cod fish oil
  • Eggs
  • Dairy products such as cheese and fortified milk
  • Fortified breakfast cereals
  • Orange and yellow vegetables and fruits, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, mangos, and cantaloupe
  • Broccoli, spinach, and most dark green, leafy vegetables.
• Function:
  • It supports cell growth, immune function, fetal development, and vision.
  • One of the best-known functions of vitamin A is its role in vision and eye health.
  • It is also known as retinol because it produces the pigments in the retina of the eye.
  • Vitamin A promotes good eyesight, especially in low light.
  • Vitamin A helps protect surface tissues such as the skin, intestines, lungs, bladder, and inner ear.
  • It supports immune function by promoting the growth and distribution of T cells, a type of white blood cell that protects the body from infection.
  • Vitamin A supports male and female reproductive health and fetal development.
• Vitamin A deficiency can lead to:
  • Reversible night blindness
  • Non-reversible corneal damage known as xerophthalmia
  • Hyperkeratosis or dry, scaly skin.

About Danube River:

• It is the second-longest river of the European continent, after the Russian Volga River.
• Course:
  • It flows from the confluence of the Brigach and Breg rivers, close to the German town of Donaueschingen in the Black Forest region of Germany.
  • The river passes through 10 European nations: Germany, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovakia, Moldova, Ukraine, and Romania.
  • It ultimately drains into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta.
• The Danube delta is located in the Tulcea County of Romania and it is comparatively young and continuously growing.
  • It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its rich biodiversity.
• The Danube is fed by major tributaries like the Inn, Drava, Sava, Tisza, Prut, and Siret.
• The Danube River flows directly through many significant European cities, including four national capitals – Vienna (Austria), Bratislava (Slovakia), Budapest (Hungary), and Belgrade (Serbia).
• Countries along the river ship goods from ports of Belgrade, Serbia; Budapest, Hungary; Vienna, Austria; and Regensburg, Germany.
• Through the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, it connects the North Sea at Rotterdam to the Black Sea at Sulina, forming a trans-European inland waterway.

About Sooty Bark Disease (SBD):

• It is a fungal disease of maple trees, which causes rapid wilting and mortality.
• The disease is caused by the fungus Cryptostroma corticale.
• It can also have implications for human health if fungal spores are inhaled.
• The fungus is endemic to the Great Lakes region of North America but is considered an introduced disease in Europe.
• It is most often noticed after periods of hot weather when extensive black sooty patches are revealed beneath the bark of affected trees.
• It is a disease which needs high temperatures for extended periods of time.
• The fungus may remain dormant inside a tree for years before becoming active under hot, dry conditions, and it can kill a tree in as little as three years.
• The main characteristic of sooty bark disease is the predominantly black discolouration caused by concentrated spore formation on the trunk.
• There is currently no control that exists for sooty bark disease.

About Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT):

• It is a 2 meter optical-infrared telescope named after Nobel laureate Subramaniam Chandrasekhar.
• It is located at the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) in Hanle near Leh in Ladakh.
• The cloudless skies and low atmospheric water vapour make it one of the best sites in the world for optical, infrared, sub-millimetre, and millimetre wavelengths.
• The telescope is remotely operated using a dedicated satellite communication link from the Centre for Research & Education in Science & Technology (CREST), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Hosakote, about 35 km northeast of Bangalore.
• Currently, the HCT hosts HFOSC (a spectrograph and camera in the optical), uTIRSPEC (a near-infrared spectrometer and imager), and HESP (a high-resolution Echelle spectrograph).
• HCT is used by astronomers from across India, to study objects as varied as planets and asteroids, to stars and galaxies.
• Some research highlights have been spectroscopy of comets, study of atmospheres of exo-planets, and participation in the discovery of the famous Trappist 1b exoplanet in the field of planetary science.