Why in news?

India and New Zealand have concluded talks on a free trade agreement, granting India tariff-free access to New Zealand’s market, attracting $20 billion in investment over 15 years, and aiming to double bilateral trade to $5 billion within five years.

The FTA will be formally signed in the first half of 2026.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India–New Zealand Bilateral Relations
• India–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement: A New Phase in Bilateral Ties
• India–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement: Key Highlights

India–New Zealand Bilateral Relations

• India and New Zealand established diplomatic relations in 1952 and share enduring ties rooted in Commonwealth membership, common law traditions, and democratic governance.
• Sporting links—especially cricket, hockey, and mountaineering—and tourism have long fostered goodwill between the two societies.
• Strategic Vision and Policy Frameworks
  • New Zealand has identified India as a priority partner through initiatives such as “Opening Doors to India” (2011) and the NZ Inc. India Strategy.
  • This was further deepened by the “India–NZ 2025: Investing in the Relationship” strategy, envisioning a more enduring strategic partnership across political, economic, and people-centric domains.
• Trade and economic ties
  • New Zealand is India's 11th largest two-way trading partner.
    • India-New Zealand total trade in 2023-24 was valued at US$ 1.75 billion.
  • Key trade sectors: Education, tourism, dairy, food processing, pharmaceuticals, renewable energy, and critical minerals.
  • Indian exports to NZ: Pharmaceuticals, precious metals & gems, textiles, motor vehicles, and non-knitted apparel.
  • Indian imports from NZ: Logs, forestry products, wool, edible fruit & nuts.
• Defence and Maritime Cooperation
  • Defence ties are expanding steadily:
    • Regular naval visits and port calls by Indian Navy ships.
    • High-level naval leadership exchanges.
    • Cooperation under Combined Task Force-150, with Indian Navy personnel contributing while NZ leads the task force.
  • These engagements support maritime security and Indo-Pacific stability.
• Education and Knowledge Partnerships
  • India is the second-largest source of international students in NZ (≈8,000 students).
  • Collaboration through:
    • NZ Centre at IIT Delhi
    • Joint research projects in cancer, robotics, cybersecurity, waste management, and medical technology
    • Education cooperation agreements with GIFT City and IIM Ahmedabad
• People-to-People and Cultural Ties
  • Indian-origin population in NZ: ~292,000, with Hindi as the fifth most spoken language.
  • Vibrant celebration of Indian festivals and strong presence of Indian cultural institutions.
  • Deep sporting connections, including shared mountaineering heritage linked to Sir Edmund Hillary.

India–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement: A New Phase in Bilateral Ties

• India and New Zealand have concluded a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), ending negotiations that began in March 2025.
• FTA talks were launched during Luxon’s visit to India, and the deal was finalised in a record nine months, reflecting strong political commitment and a shared goal of deepening bilateral relations.

India–New Zealand FTA: Key Highlights

• The FTA is expected to double bilateral trade within five years, deepen economic engagement, and strengthen cooperation beyond trade—covering defence, education, sports, innovation, and people-to-people ties.
• Investment and Market Access Gains
  • Investment: New Zealand will invest $20 billion in India over 15 years.
  • Healthcare: A dedicated health and traditional medicine annex—New Zealand’s first such agreement with any country—facilitates trade in health services.
• Tariff Liberalisation
  • 95% of New Zealand’s exports will see tariffs eliminated or reduced.
  • 57% of exports to India will be duty-free from day one, rising to 82% on full implementation; the remaining 13% will see significant tariff cuts.
  • India protected sensitive sectors—no concessions on dairy, onions, sugar, spices, edible oils, rubber, rice, wheat, and soya.
• Boost to Jobs and Exports
  • The FTA is expected to lift labour-intensive sectors—apparel, leather, textiles, rubber, footwear, home décor—and promote exports of automobiles, auto components, machinery, electronics, electricals, and pharmaceuticals.
• Mobility and Services Access
  • 5,000 temporary employment visas annually for Indian professionals, valid up to three years.
  • India gains market access across 118 services sectors and MFN status in 139 sectors, expanding opportunities for Indian professionals.
    • Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status is a key WTO principle that requires countries to treat all WTO members equally in trade.
  • Coverage includes IT, engineering, healthcare, education, construction, and niche roles like AYUSH practitioners, yoga instructors, chefs, and music teachers—strengthening services trade and workforce mobility.

Why in the News?

• Rising air pollution in Delhi-NCR has renewed debate on recognising the right to a healthy environment as an explicit constitutional right.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Environmental Degradation (Background, PM & Health Risks, Constitutional Basis, Role of Judiciary, Environmental Principles, etc.)

Background: Environmental Degradation and Public Health

• India faces recurring environmental crises, particularly during winter months, when air pollution levels in Delhi-NCR deteriorate sharply due to vehicular emissions, industrial activity, fossil fuel use, construction dust, waste burning, and agricultural residue burning.
• These conditions severely affect public health, leading to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and reduced life expectancy.
• The persistent nature of such crises has highlighted gaps in policy enforcement and raised questions about the legal responsibility of the State to protect environmental health.

Particulate Matter and Health Risks

• Among various pollutants, particulate matter is considered the most harmful. PM10 particles can enter the respiratory system, while finer PM2.5 particles penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream.
• Diesel particulate matter, a sub-category of PM2.5, is especially toxic and poses serious risks to children and vulnerable populations.
• In response to worsening air quality, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has strengthened the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), mandating school closures and staggered office timings during severe pollution phases, indicating growing administrative recognition of environmental health risks.

Constitutional Basis of Environmental Protection

• Although the original Constitution did not explicitly guarantee environmental rights, judicial interpretation has expanded the scope of Article 21 (Right to Life) to include the right to a clean and healthy environment.
• This interpretation was gradually developed through landmark judgments, beginning with Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978), which broadened the meaning of “life” beyond mere physical existence.
• Subsequently, constitutional amendments strengthened environmental responsibility.
• Article 48A (Directive Principles) places a duty on the State to protect and improve the environment, while Article 51A(g) imposes a fundamental duty on citizens to safeguard natural resources.
• Together, these provisions create a shared constitutional obligation toward environmental protection.

Role of Judiciary and Public Interest Litigation

• Since the mid-1980s, rapid industrialisation and liberalisation have intensified environmental degradation, prompting judicial intervention.
• The judiciary has played a proactive role by using Public Interest Litigations (PILs) under Articles 32 and 226 to address environmental harm.
• Courts have consistently balanced development needs with environmental sustainability, reinforcing the idea that economic growth cannot come at the cost of ecological destruction.
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, further strengthens this framework by defining the environment as an interconnected system of air, water, land, and living beings.
• Judicial rulings have clarified that the right to live with dignity includes the right to pollution-free air and water, making environmental protection an enforceable legal concern.

Environmental Principles in Indian Jurisprudence

• Indian environmental law has adopted key global principles to deal with ecological harm.
• The principle of absolute liability was introduced to address industrial disasters involving hazardous substances, ensuring that enterprises bear full responsibility for damage regardless of fault.
• The precautionary principle requires preventive action even in the absence of scientific certainty, while the polluter pays principle mandates that polluters bear the cost of environmental damage.
• These principles, affirmed by the judiciary, emphasise prevention, accountability, and sustainable development as core governance values.

Public Trust Doctrine and State Responsibility

• The public trust doctrine reinforces the idea that natural resources are held by the State in trust for the people.
• Under this doctrine, the State cannot exploit environmental resources for private or commercial gain at the cost of public interest.
• Constitutional provisions under Article 39 further support community ownership of material resources and equitable distribution for public welfare.
• Recent judicial recognition of climate change impacts has expanded environmental rights further.
• The Supreme Court’s acknowledgement of protection against adverse climate effects as part of Articles 21 and 14 reflects the evolving nature of environmental constitutionalism in India.

Need for Explicit Constitutional Recognition

• Despite progressive judicial interpretation, the absence of an explicit fundamental right to a healthy environment limits enforceability.
• Since rights must be linked to Part III for direct claims, the article argues for formally incorporating the right to a clean and healthy environment into the Constitution.
• Such recognition would clearly define State accountability and citizen responsibility, strengthening environmental governance in an era of climate uncertainty.

Why in News?

• NITI Aayog released a report titled “Internationalisation of Higher Education in India: Prospects, Potential, and Policy Recommendations”.
• The report aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and comes soon after the introduction of the Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan Bill, 2025, which aims to overhaul higher education regulation.
• The focus is on correcting the severe imbalance between inbound and outbound student mobility and positioning India as a global education and research hub.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rationale for Internationalisation
• Key Findings of the Report
• Major Policy Recommendations
• Methodology of the Study
• Challenges Identified and Way Forward
• Conclusion

Rationale for Internationalisation:

• In 2024, for every 1 international student studying in India, 28 Indian students went abroad (1:28 ratio).
• As of 2022, India hosted only about 47,000 international students, despite a 518% increase since 2001.
• Forecasts suggest 7.89–11 lakh international students by 2047, depending on policy intensity.
• Internationalisation is seen as crucial for knowledge diplomacy, talent circulation, reducing brain drain, and economic sustainability.

Key Findings of the Report:

• Economic and strategic concerns:
  • Outward remittances under RBI’s Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) increased by about 2000% in the last decade.
  • Indian students’ overseas education expenditure is projected at ₹6.2 lakh crore by 2025 (~2% of GDP).
  • This spending equals about 75% of India’s trade deficit (FY 2024–25).
  • Concentration of 8.5 lakh out of 13.5 lakh outbound students in high-income countries (USA, UK, Australia).
  • Over 16 lakh Indians renounced citizenship since 2011, indicating long-term talent loss.
• Perception and institutional gaps:
  • 41% of institutes cited limited scholarships/financial aid as a key barrier.
  • 30% institutes flagged perception of education quality in India.
  • Other constraints include inadequate international infrastructure, limited global programme offerings, weak international student support systems, and cultural adaptation challenges.

Major Policy Recommendations:

• Strategic and financial measures:
  • Bharat Vidya Kosh: As a national research sovereign wealth fund (suggesting a $10 billion corpus, of which 50% can be raised from diaspora/philanthropy + 50% from Centre).
  • Vishwa Bandhu scholarship: To attract foreign students.
  • Vishwa Bandhu fellowship: To attract foreign research talent and faculty.
  • Bharat ki AAN (Alumni Ambassador Network): To leverage diaspora Indians who have studied at top India universities into acting as ambassadors for Indian higher education.
• Mobility and global partnerships:
  • Europe’s Erasmus+ like programme:
    • To suggest the creation of a “multilateral academic mobility framework” tailored to specific country groupings like ASEAN, BRICS, BIMSTEC, etc.
    • This could be called the “Tagore framework”, named after Asia’s first Nobel laureate, Rabindranath Tagore.
  • Promotion of “campus within campus” and more international campuses in India.
• Regulatory and governance reforms:
  • Easier entry–exit norms for foreign students and faculty.
  • Fast-track tenure pathways for foreign faculty.
  • Competitive, internationally benchmarked salaries.
  • Single-window clearance system for visas, bank accounts, tax IDs, housing and administrative needs.
  • Alignment with non-binding internationalisation frameworks under the proposed Manak Parishad (Standards Council).
• Branding, rankings and outreach:
  • Expansion of NIRF parameters to include outreach and inclusivity, globalisation and partnerships.
  • Bharat ki AAN: Mobilising Indian diaspora alumni as global ambassadors of Indian HEIs.
• Curriculum and academic culture: Updated and globally relevant curricula. Emphasis on international research collaboration and cross-cultural learning ecosystems.

Methodology of the Study:

• Online survey of 160 Indian institutions.
• Key informant interviews with 30 institutions across 16 countries.
• National Workshop at IIT Madras.
• Transnational Education Roundtable in the UK.

Challenges Identified and Way Forward:

• Persistent quality perception gap: Leverage diaspora capital, soft power, and civilisational knowledge.
• Fragmented regulatory ecosystem: Ensure policy coherence between NEP 2020, regulatory reforms, and global engagement.
• Weak internationalisation culture: Treat internationalisation as a strategic national priority, not merely an academic reform.
• Risk of continued brain drain and capital flight: Shift from student export model to a global education destination model.

Conclusion:

• The NITI Aayog’s roadmap underscores that internationalisation of higher education is central to India’s economic resilience, strategic autonomy, and soft power projection.
• India can transform from a net exporter of students to a global knowledge hub, in line with the aspirations of NEP 2020 and Viksit Bharat 2047.

Context

• The replacement of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) by the Viksit Bharat Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) Act, 2025 marks a decisive shift in India’s rural employment framework.
• MGNREGA was a rights-based, decentralised and demand-driven law, whereas the new Act reflects a centralised, discretionary and fiscally restrictive approach.
• This transition raises serious concerns regarding the constitutional right to livelihood, federalism, decentralisation, and social equity.

Constitutional and Legal Foundations of MGNREGA

• MGNREGA drew legitimacy from Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the right to life.
• In Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985), the Supreme Court held that the right to livelihood is an intrinsic component of the right to life.
• MGNREGA operationalised this interpretation by recognising the right to work as a legal entitlement rather than a welfare measure.
• The Act created justiciable rights, including employment on demand, unemployment allowance if work was not provided within 15 days, timely wage payments with compensation for delays, gender parity in wages, and minimum wage guarantees.
• These provisions transformed rural workers into rights-holders and imposed clear legal obligations on the State, distinguishing MGNREGA from earlier public works programmes.

Achievements and Social Impact of MGNREGA

• MGNREGA produced multiple positive outcomes.
  • First, it was universal and not targeted, reducing exclusion errors.
  • Second, it led to increased rural incomes and a decline in poverty levels.
  • Third, it significantly addressed gender and caste inequalities, with women constituting around 58% of workers in recent years.
  • Importantly, 45% of women workers had not participated in paid work prior to MGNREGA, highlighting its transformative role.
• The programme also reduced dependence on moneylenders by 21%, improved school enrolment, and created durable assets that alleviated ecological distress.
• As an instrument of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, MGNREGA strengthened panchayati raj institutions through decentralised planning and execution.
• Its effectiveness was globally acknowledged, and its role as a critical safety net during the COVID-19 pandemic further reinforced its significance.

Gradual Undermining of MGNREGA

• Despite its success, MGNREGA faced systematic erosion over the past decade.
• Chronic underfunding resulted in persistent wage delays and rationing of work, undermining its demand-driven character.
• Technocratic interventions, such as photo-based attendance systems and complex payment mechanisms, led to exclusions and new avenues for corruption.
• Additionally, staff shortages and underfunding of social audits weakened accountability structures.
• These developments diluted the Act’s effectiveness and paved the way for legislative replacement rather than corrective reform.

Broader Implications of the VB-G RAM G Act

• Centralisation and Fiscal Burden under the VB-G RAM G Act
  • The VB-G RAM G Act fundamentally alters the governance of rural employment.
    • Section 5(1) grants the Union government wide discretionary powers over the nature and location of public works.
    • Section 4(5) introduces State-wise normative allocations, replacing demand-driven employment with a command-driven model.
  • This shift undermines decentralisation and federal principles, placing States at the mercy of central allocations.
  • Unlike MGNREGA, the new Act removes the Union government’s obligation to compensate for wage delays, despite its dominant financial role earlier.
  • The revised Centre–State funding ratio of 60:40, coupled with the provision that States must bear expenditure beyond their allocations, imposes a severe fiscal burden.
  • These clauses risk political favouritism, as States with limited fiscal capacity may be compelled to suppress work demand, leading to higher unemployment and distress migration.
• Reinforcing Inequality and Weakening Worker Rights
  • Several provisions of the new Act threaten to entrench existing inequalities.
    • Section 6(2) permits suspension of employment for 60 days during the agricultural season, disproportionately affecting landless workers and women, for whom year-round employment is essential.
    • This provision artificially pits farmers against labourers, despite evidence of mutual benefits under MGNREGA.
  • Although the Act promises 125 days of employment per household, this claim lacks credibility when average employment had already declined to around 50 days due to funding constraints.
  • Crucially, the new Act introduces no substantive mechanisms to address corruption, while dismantling existing safeguards.

Conclusion

• MGNREGA embodied a rare convergence of Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of decentralised governance and B.R. Ambedkar’s commitment to enforceable rights.
• By formalising years of dilution, the VB-G RAM G Act reduces a constitutional entitlement to a discretionary scheme, weakens federalism, and exacerbates inequality.
• Rather than advancing inclusive development, it represents a retreat from the constitutional promise of dignity, livelihood, and social justice.

Context

• The introduction of the Right to Disconnect Bill as a private member’s bill marks a significant moment in Indian labour law, particularly in the context of the recent consolidation of labour regulation through the four labour codes.
• These codes govern working hours, overtime, and employer control, reflecting a framework designed primarily for physical workplaces.
• The Bill responds to the growing reality of digital work, where technological connectivity has blurred the boundaries between professional and personal life.
• Despite acknowledging this transformation, the Bill continues to operate within a time-based regulatory framework, giving rise to unresolved questions regarding the definition of work, the scope of the proposed right, and its constitutional character.

Definitional Gaps in the Concept of Work

• A central limitation of the Right to Disconnect Bill lies in the absence of a definition of work in the context of the digital economy.
• Indian labour law has traditionally been grounded in physical presence and fixed working hours.
• While the Bill grants employees the right to refrain from responding to work-related communications beyond prescribed working hours, it does not clarify whether after-hours digital engagement constitutes work.
• This omission becomes particularly significant when read alongside the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020, which continues to regulate working hours and overtime.
• The Code prescribes limits on working time but does not expressly address digital engagement outside formal hours.
• By regulating communication without integrating it into the legal framework governing working time, the Bill creates a conceptual gap.
• As a result, the right to disconnect risks functioning as a behavioural norm rather than a binding labour standard, weakening its enforceability. 

Comparative Perspectives on Employer Control and Working Time

• Comparative analysis highlights these shortcomings more clearly. In the European Union, judicial interpretations of working time have evolved to focus on employer control rather than physical activity alone.
• Decisions such as SIMAP, Jaeger, and Tyco adopted an expansive understanding of working time, including on-call duties, standby periods, and other forms of availability where the employer exercises control, even in the absence of active work.
• This jurisprudence reflects the principle that an employee’s time belongs to the employer whenever autonomy is constrained.
• France adopts a similar approach by clearly demarcating working time and rest time, treating periods of availability under employer control as working time.
• Digital communication is integrated through collective bargaining, allowing sector-specific flexibility while maintaining statutory protection.
• Germany likewise enforces strict limits on working hours and mandatory rest periods.
• These jurisdictions illustrate a shared engagement with a fundamental question: when does an employee’s time become the employer’s time?

Scope and Enforceability of the Right in Indian Labour Law

• Within the Indian context, this question remains unresolved.
• The labour codes combine mandatory statutory provisions, such as limits on working hours, with contractual terms negotiated through employer policies and agreements.
• The Right to Disconnect Bill does not clarify whether the right is a mandatory labour standard or one that can be modified through contract.
• This ambiguity weakens the normative force of the right and risks uneven application across sectors and workplaces.
• Without clear statutory grounding, the right may remain dependent on employer discretion rather than legal obligation.

Constitutional Dimensions of the Right to Disconnect

• The Bill also raises important constitutional concerns.
• The freedom to disengage from work bears a clear relationship with Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty.
• The ability to disconnect directly implicates individual autonomy, dignity, and mental well-being, all of which have been recognised as components of Article 21.
• However, the Bill does not articulate this constitutional foundation or explain how such guarantees are to be realised within the employment relationship.
• Consequently, it remains unclear whether the right to disconnect is purely statutory or reflective of a deeper constitutional commitment to personal autonomy at work.

Conclusion

• The Right to Disconnect Bill recognises that digital technologies have blurred the traditional boundaries between working time and personal life.
• But it does not adequately explain how this shift should be accommodated within the existing legal framework governing working hours, overtime, and employer control.
• Comparative experience demonstrates that the right to disconnect becomes effective only when digital availability is treated as working time, a step yet to be taken in Indian labour law.
• The Bill also leaves unresolved whether the right carries a constitutional dimension rooted in Article 21, allowing for divergent interpretations.
• For these reasons, the Bill is best understood as the beginning of a broader legal and constitutional conversation, one that Indian labour law jurisprudence will eventually need to address.

About Syria:

• Location: It is located on the east coast of the Mediterranean Seain southwestern Asia.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by Turkey in the north, Lebanon in the west, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south and Israel in the southwest.
• Capital City: Damascus
• Geographical Features of Syria:
  • Syria's geography offers two major regions, a western and an eastern part.
    • The western region features narrow, fertile coastal plains along the eastern Mediterranean
    • The eastern part of the country is the realm of the Syrian Desert which is a mixture of dry steppe and true desert landscape.
  • Rivers: Euphrates River flows across Syria before entering Iraq.
  • Lakes: Lake al-Assad (a man-made reservoir,) created by a dam on the Euphrates River.
  • Desert: Southern and eastern Syria are part of the northern Syrian Desert.
  • Highest Point: Mt Hermon.

About Chillai-Kalan:

• It is the 40-day period of the harshest winter cold in Kashmir region.
  • Chillai Kalan is a Persian term which means “Major Cold”.
• The Chillai Kalan (big cold) usually begins on December 21 and will end on January 30.
  • Chillai Kalan is followed by ‘Chillai-Khurd’ (small cold)– a 20-day period of moderate winter from January 31 to February 19, and the 10-day ‘Chillai-Bacha’ (baby cold), towards the fag end of the winter season from February 20 to March 2.
• Cultural Significance: According to Persian tradition, the night of 21st December is celebrated as Shab-e Yalda-“Night of Birth”, or Shab-e Chelleh. – “Night of Forty”. 
• Impacts of Chillai Kalan:
  • During this time Kashmir Valley faces its harshest phase of the winter season, including widespread snowfall, sub-zero temperatures and intense cold waves.
  • Traditionally, heavy snowfall during Chillai Kalan replenishes water reservoirs in the higher reaches, sustaining rivers, streams and lakes during the summer months.

About Southern Ocean:

• The Southern Ocean is also known as the Antarctic Ocean, is the fourth-largest ocean by surface area.
• The International Hydrographic Organization describes the Southern Ocean as the World Ocean’s southernmost portion.
• It is located on the lower end of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean and includes the tributary seas around the Antarctic region. 
• It is known for its strong winds, intense storms, dramatic seasonal changes and cold temperatures.
• It is dominated by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) which is the longest, strongest, deepest-reaching current on earth. 
• Formation: It was formed when Antarctica and South America drifted apart, creating the Drake Passage.
• Biodiversity: Powerful currents, cold temperatures and nutrient and oxygen-rich waters make the Southern Ocean one of the most productive marine ecosystems on Earth.
• Role of Southern Ocean:
  • It plays an important role in the circulation of water around the globe.
  • It also plays a key role in regulating the earth’s climate through its currents, seasonal sea ice and by absorbing heat and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

About World Anti-Doping Agency:

• It was established in 1999 as an international independent agency to lead a collaborative worldwide movement for doping-free sport.
• Role: To develop, harmonize and coordinate anti-doping rules and policies across all sports and countries.
• It activities include scientific and social science research; education; intelligence & investigations; development of anti-doping capacity; and monitoring of compliance with the World Anti-Doping Program.
• It is funded equally by the Olympic Movement and Governments of the world.
• Headquarter: Montreal, Canada.
• Governance Structure of World Anti-Doping Agency
  • Foundation Board (Board): It is the agency’s highest policy-making body and is jointly composed of representatives of the Olympic Movement (the IOC, National Olympic Committees, International Sports Federations, and athletes) and representatives of governments from all five continents.
  • Executive Committee (ExCo): It looks after the management and running of the agency, including the performance of all its activities and the administration of its assets.